Table 4.

Core themes, sub-codes, and supporting quotes

Core Theme	Sub-Code	Supporting Quote
From Individual Family Adjustment “Having a Second Child for Companionship” to Collective “Outings for Social Interaction Outside the Home”	1.1 Cultural roots of “having a second child for companionship”	“As parents of autistic children, we worry about who will take care of them after we pass away. Having a second child to accompany them is our last hope—this is what we learned from the organization’s experience-sharing sessions.” (Parent-led organization leader, Xi’an)
From Individual Family Adjustment “Having a Second Child for Companionship” to Collective “Outings for Social Interaction Outside the Home”	1.2 Organizational goal translation	“Many low-income families can’t have a second child, so we launched peer companionship programs—matching autistic children with typical peers, which is cost-free and effective.” (Parent-led organization founder, Xi’an)
Avoid the Stigma and Shame Caused by the Use of the “Loneliness” Narrative	2.1 Integration narrative as stigma avoidance	“We never mention ‘loneliness’ in promotional activities—parents are afraid of being labeled ‘mentally problematic’ for their children. Using ‘integration’ makes them more willing to participate.” (Parent-led organization leader, Changchun)
Avoid the Stigma and Shame Caused by the Use of the “Loneliness” Narrative	2.2 Educational integration (a way of social integration) affects controversy	“Autistic children in mainstream schools have very low friendship opportunities and are often bullied—this makes them more lonely instead of alleviating it.” (Special education teacher, Changchun)
The Goal of Parents’ Reintegration into Society	3.1 Dual-sustainability mechanism of organizations	“Free hiking activities attract parents who have quit jobs to care for their children—they need social interaction, and when they trust us, they will buy our core training services for their children.” (Volunteer team leader, Changchun)
The Goal of Parents’ Reintegration into Society	3.2 Misalignment of the loneliness dimension	“Parents bring their children when participating in social integration activities, even if the children strongly resist collective social activities.” (Volunteer team leader, Xi’an)