Table 2.

Summary of suicide prevention interventions in primary health care and their applicability to socially vulnerable populations.

Intervention category	Target population	Main reported outcomes	Level of evidence	Key implementation considerations
Suicide risk screening	General PHC population; adolescents; adults; older adults	Improved identification of suicidal ideation and suicide risk; increased referral to mental health services	Systematic reviews, primary studies	Most effective when linked to referral pathways, safety planning, and follow-up care; provider training required
Collaborative care models	Adults with depression; older adults; patients with chronic conditions	Reduced suicidal ideation; improved depression outcomes; increased treatment engagement	Meta-analyses, RCTs, systematic reviews	Requires integration of PHC and mental health services, care managers, multidisciplinary teams, and sustainable funding
Safety planning interventions	Individuals with suicidal ideation or elevated suicide risk	Improved coping, crisis management, treatment engagement, and help-seeking behavior	Systematic reviews, primary studies	Low-cost and feasible in PHC; most effective when combined with follow-up contacts and referral support
Brief psychological interventions	Adults with suicidal ideation; patients with depression and psychosocial distress	Reduced suicidal ideation; improved coping skills and psychological well-being	RCTs, systematic reviews	Requires trained personnel; evidence stronger for ideation than for suicide mortality
Telehealth and digital interventions	Rural, remote, underserved, and socially vulnerable populations	Improved access to care; reduced psychological distress and suicidal ideation in some studies	Systematic reviews, primary studies	Digital exclusion, low adherence, and safety monitoring remain challenges; clinician-supported approaches appear most effective
Follow-up and continuity-of-care strategies	Individuals after suicidal crises, emergency department visits, or hospital discharge	Reduced repeat suicide attempts; improved treatment engagement and continuity of care	Meta-analyses, systematic reviews, primary studies	Early follow-up and active outreach are critical; continuity may be difficult among socially vulnerable populations
Education and training of PHC providers	PHC physicians, nurses, and other healthcare professionals	Improved knowledge, confidence, attitudes, and preparedness for suicide prevention	Systematic reviews, meta-analyses	Effects on provider outcomes are well established; evidence for effects on suicide mortality remains limited
Social prescribing and community linkage	Socially isolated, low-income, unemployed, and marginalized populations	Improved social connectedness, well-being, and mental health outcomes	Primary studies, systematic reviews	Requires community resources and cross-sector collaboration; suicide-specific outcomes rarely evaluated
Housing, welfare, and social support interventions	Homeless individuals; socioeconomically disadvantaged populations	Improved housing stability, access to services, and psychosocial outcomes	RCTs, cohort studies, systematic reviews	Address social determinants of suicide risk; evidence for direct effects on suicide outcomes remains limited
Culturally adapted and trauma-informed interventions	Culturally adapted and trauma-informed interventions	Improved treatment engagement, mental health outcomes, and service utilization	Systematic reviews, primary studies	Adaptation to cultural context, language, and trauma history is essential for effectiveness

PHC, primary health care; RCTs, randomized controlled trials.