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. 2026 Jul 13;13:1878351. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2026.1878351

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Copyright © 2026 Wang, Hu, Xue, Li, Li and Kong.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Diagram illustrating a pipeline for training a Residual U-Net with ultrasound image augmentation, showing three types of training-only augmentations—photometric variation, resolution variation, and low-amplitude noise—applied to input B-mode ultrasound image-mask pairs, resulting in a model tested on internal B-mode ultrasound data and a CEUS domain-shift stress test. — Training-only combined ultrasound-specific augmentation protocol. Brightness/contrast and gamma variation, Gaussian blur, and low-amplitude speckle and additive Gaussian perturbations were applied during training, while the Residual U-Net inference backbone remained unchanged.