Table 1.

Study characteristics.

Author	Year	Country	Study design	Diagnostic method	Human/Animal	Sample size	Age in bTBI group	% of Male in bTBI group
Andrea (55)	2025	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	Logistic regression model with fMRI scans data	Human	424	43	99.50%
Anthony (23)	2024	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	Vestibular/Ocular Motor Screening (VOMS)	Human	25	42.39	100.00%
Grant (56)	2019	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics Version 4 TBI-MIL (ANAM4 TBI-MIL)	Human	733	26.9	100.00%
Huang (51)	2020	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	3D-MEGNET model with rs-MEG source-magnitude imaging data	Human	101	29.86	100.00%
Jared (20)	2020	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	The Salisbury Blast Interview (SBI)	Human	287	41.7	86.20%
Jose (57)	2012	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	Computerized oculomotor vision screening (COVS)	Human	40	29.7	90.00%
Kranfli (52)	2025	USA	Prospective cohort	The Modified Vestibular/Ocular Motor Screening Tool (mVOMS)	Human	57	25	100.00%
Michael (58)	2015	USA	Prospective cohort	Olfactory impairment test	Human	231	25	96.60%
Sarah (59)	2023	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	Military occupational specialty classification model	Human	256	41.56	86.30%
Tristan (53)	2025	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	The Boston assessment of traumatic brain injury lifetime, second edition (BATL-2)	Human	120	34	91.70%
William (18)	2014	USA	Retrospective cross-sectional	The VCU retrospective concussion diagnostic interview, blast version (VCU rCDI-b)	Human	103	24	99.00%
Ge (60)	2023	China	Prospective longitudinal	PCA model with Raman spectroscopy data of hippocampus and hypothalamus tissues	Mice	45	/	100.00%
Ge (61)	2024	China	Prospective longitudinal	LDA model with Raman spectroscopy data of hippocampus and hypothalamus tissues	Mice	55	/	100.00%
Nam (33)	2014	Canada	Prospective cross-sectional	soluble cellular prion protein (PrPC)	Mice	52	/	100.00%
Wang (62)	2020	China	Prospective longitudinal	SVM algorithm with ATR THz-TDS data of serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)	Mice	52	/	100.00%

Author	Sample type	Diagnostic modality	Reference	Post-injury interval	Phase	TP	FP	FN	TN
Andrea (55)	Brain imaging	Imaging with computational model	Clinical diagnosis	Not specified	/	187	70	25	142
Anthony (23)	Oculovestibular system	Physical exam	Clinical diagnosis	Within 60 days	Chronic	16	0	2	7
Grant (56)	Neuropsychology system	Standardized interview and scales	Clinical diagnosis	11 (0, 245) days	Chronic	42	237	14	440
Huang (51)	Brain imaging	Imaging with computational model	Clinical diagnosis	Not specified	/	59	0	0	42
Jared (20)	Neuropsychology system	Standardized interview and scales	Structured interview	>10 years	Chronic	206	29	24	28
Jose (57)	Oculovestibular system	Physical exam	Clinical diagnosis	1–10 years	Chronic	20	1	0	19
Kranfli (52)	Oculovestibular system	Physical exam	Clinical diagnosis	24 h post-injury	Acute	29	3	13	12
Michael (58)	Olfactory system	Physical exam	Imaging diagnosis	14.5 (0, 23) days	Chronic	62	0	114	55
Sarah (59)	Clinical classification	Standardized interview and scales	Clinical diagnosis	>10 years	Chronic	45	30	43	138
Tristan (53)	Neuropsychology system	Standardized interview and scales	Clinical diagnosis	Not specified	/	60	6	0	54
William (18)	Neuropsychology system	Standardized interview and scales	Clinical diagnosis	9.1 (6.3–9.7) months	Chronic	83	2	4	14
Ge (60)	Brain tissue	Laboratory testing	Pathological examination	3 h, 24 h, 48 h, 72 h	Acute	19	1	1	24
Ge (61)	Brain tissue	Laboratory testing	Pathological examination	3 h, 6 h, 24 h, 48 h, 72 h	Acute	24	1	1	29
Nam (33)	Body fluid	Laboratory testing	Pathological examination	24 h	Acute	26	4	7	15
Wang (62)	Body fluid	Laboratory testing	Pathological examination	3 h, 6 h, 24 h	Acute	40	1	0	11