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. 2026 Jul 13;17:1829764. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2026.1829764

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Copyright © 2026 Zeng, Guan, Chen and Chen.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Forest plot with table comparing odds ratios and confidence intervals of adverse events for patients on proton pump inhibitors (PPI) versus no PPI across subgroups of sex, age, BMI, creatinine, and high-risk antibiotics, showing higher event rates and statistically significant increased odds with PPI in all subgroups (all P values less than 0.001). — Risk of CDI between PPI-Naive and PPI-Exposed patients and subgroup analysis. Abbreviations: CDI, Clostridioides difficile infection; PPI, proton pump inhibitors; BMI, body mass index; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.