Table 2. Outcomes by study arm and timepoint, with intervention effect sizes.
| Outcome | Baseline | Endline | Effect size type | Estimate | CI lower | CI upper | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control | Intervention | Control | Intervention | |||||
| Early childhood development | ||||||||
| CREDI overall | 44.22 (3.93) | 44.74 (3.84) | 51.84 (1.50) | 52.13 (1.49) | d | −0.033 | −0.162 | 0.095 |
| CREDI cognition | 46.95 (2.30) | 47.25 (2.20) | 50.75 (1.00) | 50.95 (0.98) | d | −0.026 | −0.176 | 0.123 |
| CREDI language | 47.30 (1.65) | 47.50 (1.70) | 51.62 (1.22) | 51.85 (1.22) | d | 0.032 | −0.090 | 0.154 |
| CREDI motor | 46.30 (2.55) | 46.63 (2.55) | 51.47 (1.22) | 51.66 (1.24) | d | −0.025 | −0.143 | 0.093 |
| CREDI social-emotional | 46.65 (2.57) | 46.95 (2.42) | 51.39 (1.12) | 51.66 (1.09) | d | 0.000 | −0.129 | 0.130 |
| GSED developmental score | N/A | N/A | 67.24 (8.49) | 68.36 (7.75) | d | 0.084 | −0.026 | 0.195 |
| Observed socioemotional development | N/A | N/A | 32.87 (9.16) | 33.57 (9.09) | d | 0.071 | −0.105 | 0.247 |
| Parenting | ||||||||
| Primary caregiver stimulation | 7.96 (4.26) | 8.21 (4.14) | 10.49 (4.35) | 12.8 (5.22) | d | 0.422 | 0.175 | 0.669 |
| No. of learning materials | 2.16 (1.69) | 2.52 (1.73) | 3.90 (1.04) | 4.30 (0.94) | d | −0.013 | −0.217 | 0.190 |
| No. of books | 0.54 (1.48) | 0.70 (1.49) | 1.44 (1.75) | 2.00 (1.98) | d | 0.208 | −0.042 | 0.458 |
| Child safety and security | ||||||||
| Primary caregiver positive discipline | 53.33% | 55.48% | 97.22% | 94.64% | OR | 0.369 | 0.094 | 1.459 |
| Primary caregiver any violent discipline | 57.54% | 60.00% | 88.10% | 55.17% | OR | 0.091 | 0.038 | 0.220 |
| Primary caregiver physical punishment | 49.12% | 50.32% | 79.37% | 48.28% | OR | 0.135 | 0.058 | 0.310 |
| Primary caregiver psychological aggression | 45.61% | 45.81% | 68.65% | 39.08% | OR | 0.230 | 0.115 | 0.461 |
| Birth registration | 30.74% | 35.16% | 57.37% | 63.08% | OR | 1.121 | 0.533 | 2.361 |
| Caregiver psychosocial well-being | ||||||||
| Social support | 3.37 (0.67) | 3.35 (0.62) | 3.29 (0.81) | 3.56 (0.68) | d | 0.442 | 0.255 | 0.629 |
| Community connectedness | 3.04 (0.96) | 3.01 (0.92) | 2.92 (1.13) | 3.34 (1.07) | d | 0.392 | 0.139 | 0.645 |
| Parenting stress | 32.92 (6.41) | 33.89 (7.16) | 33.38 (7.52) | 30.98 (7.28) | d | −0.496 | −0.666 | −0.325 |
| Primary caregiver depressive symptoms | 8.24 (5.87) | 9.25 (6.69) | 9.35 (7.23) | 7.80 (6.27) | d | −0.452 | −0.660 | −0.245 |
| Primary caregiver financial worries | N/A | N/A | 12.88 (5.05) | 11.7 (5.38) | d | −0.283 | −0.427 | −0.138 |
| Any IPV | 46.81% | 47.62% | 46.77% | 31.16% | OR | 0.399 | 0.182 | 0.875 |
| Physical IPV | 15.74% | 18.65% | 14.93% | 9.30% | OR | 0.332 | 0.118 | 0.937 |
| Emotional IPV | 40.43% | 41.67% | 38.81% | 24.19% | OR | 0.341 | 0.153 | 0.757 |
| Economic IPV | 32.34% | 28.17% | 29.35% | 15.81% | OR | 0.366 | 0.164 | 0.818 |
| Nutrition, health and financial security | ||||||||
| Kitchen garden | 72.28% | 67.74% | 73.02% | 84.67% | OR | 3.360 | 1.602 | 7.051 |
| Child dietary diversity | 3.52 (1.61) | 3.37 (1.54) | 3.90 (1.39) | 4.36 (1.38) | d | 0.381 | 0.126 | 0.635 |
| Child illness | 72.28% | 77.74% | 57.20% | 56.30% | OR | 0.786 | 0.417 | 1.484 |
| Sought appropriate care for illness | 48.54% | 62.24% | 44.76% | 53.85% | OR | 0.782 | 0.336 | 1.820 |
| Received referral | N/A | N/A | 13.89% | 29.89% | OR | 3.098 | 1.581 | 6.071 |
| Income in past month (Kenyan Shillings, log) | 1.60 (4.76) | 1.84 (4.82) | 6.37 (3.23) | 6.89 (2.38) | d | −0.032 | −0.299 | 0.235 |
| Current savings (Kenyan Shillings, log) | −0.35 (4.01) | −0.32 (3.95) | 0.86 (4.8) | 3.36 (5.17) | d | 0.521 | 0.307 | 0.735 |
| Male caregiver outcomes | ||||||||
| Male caregiver stimulation | 3.75 (3.82) | 4.36 (4.27) | 5.66 (5.07) | 8.47 (6.28) | d | 0.468 | 0.234 | 0.701 |
| Male caregiver positive discipline | 30.45% | 35.96% | 80.00% | 80.56% | OR | 0.762 | 0.308 | 1.885 |
| Male caregiver any violent discipline | 30.00% | 31.58% | 49.55% | 26.85% | OR | 0.257 | 0.114 | 0.580 |
| Male caregiver physical punishment | 23.18% | 26.75% | 36.82% | 18.98% | OR | 0.206 | 0.086 | 0.491 |
| Male caregiver psychological aggression | 20.45% | 18.42% | 33.18% | 18.06% | OR | 0.397 | 0.155 | 1.015 |
| Male caregiver household chores | 2.19 (2.28) | 2.13 (2.35) | 1.12 (1.76) | 2.22 (2.48) | d | 0.579 | 0.301 | 0.858 |
Note. Effect sizes are derived from adjusted mixed-effects difference-in-differences models controlling for time, study arm, and their interaction, with additional covariate adjustment for child sex and age, primary caregiver characteristics, household wealth, survey round and county. Models include random intercepts to account for repeated measures within individuals and village-level clustering and apply inverse probability weights for missingness. Models for GSED and observed socioemotional development outcomes additionally adjust for child development assessor and baseline overall CREDI score. Estimates are based on intent-to-treat. Bold values indicate p<0.05.
d refers to Cohen’s d, or standardised effect size expressed in SD units.
CREDI, Caregiver Reported Early Development Instruments; GSED, Global Scales for Early Development; IPV, intimate partner violence; N/A, not assessed.