Table 3.

Summary of observed food-related parenting codes and themes

Form Code	Conceptualization: General Parenting Dimensions	Code Definition	Key Themes	Exemplar Quotes
1. Sharing Food	N/A		Parents sharing their drink with the child before meal items were present at the table, child and parent sharing both whole food items and small portion of food items	“Child used some of mom’s dipping sauces”
2. Food-Related Talk
Question	Neutral	When a parent invites the child’s opinion or perspective regarding some aspect of their meal, the restaurant, or food in general	Inquiring about the child’s opinion on current meal items and future food items, child’s current preferences or needs, and general, non-meal related topics	“What do you think you should get for dessert?”
Command:	Demanding	When a parent, directly or indirectly, makes a statement designed to control the child’s behavior	Indirect commands attempting to change the child’s behavior, direct commands used to influence the quantity or pace of child’s food intake	“Parent asked child to pay attention to their meal”
Pressure to Eat*†	Demanding	When the parent attempts to coerce the child into eating their food, or makes the child feel as though they need to eat, typically against the child’s wishes	Direct commands pressuring child to eat more or specific foods, use of incentives, and presentation of indirect consequences	“You better eat the rest of your chicken after the bathroom”
Warning†	Demanding	When the parent cautions the child, attempting to intercept their behavior, to avoid an unfavorable outcome	Warning the child about the temperature of their food, potential to spill food, and the pace of eating	“Food might be hot so be careful!”
Encouragement to Eat*	Responsive	When the parent attempts to get the child to eat in a supportive way, with respect for the child’s autonomy. It is an invitation to eat, rather than a command to eat	Offering of food items to the child, particularly healthier food items, such as broccoli and chicken	“Parent asks child ‘Want to try my chicken?’
Teaching	Responsive	When the parent takes an opportunity to explain something to the child. This may look like correcting the child’s behavior in a way that helps them understand why the behavior should be changed, or it may look like answering a question asked by the child	Explaining the difference between the adult and kids’ menus and discussion of the importance of eating a variety of foods and the perceived health and nutrition benefits	“Parent says ‘It’s healthy to try a lot of foods’”
Observation	Neutral	When the parent describes something to the child or makes a general statement about something that is currently observable to the child in reference to any meals present at the table	Neutral statements about the presence of food items and commentary on taste or enjoyment of the meal	“Mom says she liked the onion rings”
3. Disengaging from Meal
Technology Use (brief)	N/A	Brief (roughly 30 seconds or less) use of a device (ex: phone, tablet). This may look like the parent or the child quickly checking their device before putting it away	Parent looking at phone for a short period of time. Child using an iPad before the parent intervenes	“Child was on iPad briefly before mom takes it away”
Technology Use (extended)	N/A	Extended (more than 30 seconds) or repeated use of a device (ex: phone, tablet) throughout the observation period. This may be applicable if there is no clear termination of device use indicated	The child and/or parent spending a good portion of the observation period on their phone, typically independent from one another	“Mom went on phone to answer texts”
Leaving the Table	N/A	Any mention of the parent or child physically leaving the table	The parent or child leaving the table to get items necessary for the meal (e.g., napkins) or to throw away trash. Parent taking the child to the bathroom. Some ambiguous notes of parent leaving the table	“Child and parent got up at the same time (to get coffee)”
Other Disengagement	N/A	Any mention of disengagement from the meal that does not fall under technology use or leaving the table	All instances were from the child. Inattentive and restless behaviors, as well as both physical and verbal disengagement	“Child laying on chair and climbing under table”

Note. Only food-related talk codes were categorized as either responsive, neutral, or demanding, as this category was the only one that did not reflect any child behavior.

^*These codes are deductive codes which were determined a priori. All other codes are inductive.

^†These are sub-codes of command, which have complete overlap with their parent code.