Table 1.

Known contributors to OAB symptoms

Risk factors	OAB	BPH	LUTS
Age	OAB prevalence increases with age [45]	BPH is a prevalent condition that affects older men [47] Men aged ≥ 62 years are at risk of BPH progression and worsening symptoms compared with men < 62 years [47]	LUTS prevalence increases with age [77]
Genetics			A genetic component to risk of high-moderate/severe LUTS [78]
Prostate size and obstruction		Men with total prostate volume ≥ 31 mL compared with < 31 mL had a greater risk of BPH progression [47] Greater risk of worsening symptoms, acute urinary retention, and a greater need for invasive surgical treatment [47]
PSA		Men with PSA values ≥ 1.6 ng/dL compared with values < 1.6 ng/dL had a greater risk of BPH progression [47]   Greater risk of worsening symptoms and acute urinary retention and a greater need for invasive surgical treatment [47]
Urinary flow		Men with urinary flow < 10.6 mL/s compared with value ≥ 10.6 mL/s had a greater risk of BPH progression [47]   Greater risk of worsening symptoms and a greater need for invasive surgical treatment [47]
PVR		Men with PVR values ≥ 39 mL compared with values < 39 mL had a greater risk of BPH progression [47]   Greater risk of worsening symptoms and a greater need for invasive surgical treatment [47]
Diet	Whole grain and high alcohol dietary patterns were positively associated with a risk of OAB [42]	Cereals, poultry, and egg consumption positively associated with BPH risk [41]	Higher prevalence of LUTS in men with poor diet quality (less protein and fewer food groups in the diet compared with an overall healthy diet) [79]
Caffeine	A high consumption of caffeine (> 300 mg caffeine a day) was associated with a higher proportion of individuals with severe OAB symptoms compared with patients who had < 300 mg caffeine a day [80]	Increased coffee consumption was associated with increased risk of BPH [81]	High coffee consumption (> 2 cups a day) in men was associated with an increased risk of developing LUTS, specifically storage symptoms [82]
Alcohol	A higher proportion of individuals with OAB were found in the high-frequency and low-frequency consumption groups (consuming alcohol > 10 drinks or 1–5 drinks per month, respectively) compared to the modest-consumption group [83]	High alcohol consumption increased rates of incontinence, obstruction, and LUTS, while modest consumption was associated with less severe symptoms compared to nondrinkers [84]	In men, high alcohol consumption was positively associated with increased risk of urgency [85]
Obesity	BMI was significantly higher in patients with OAB than in individuals without OAB [45]	Increased BMI is positively associated with increased prostate volume [44]	High BMI had a modest (non-significant) association with high-moderate to severe LUTS [44]
Diabetes	Duration of diabetes is a risk factor for OAB progression [43]	High levels of fasting plasma glucose and diabetes are associated with prostate enlargement [44]	High levels of fasting plasma glucose and diabetes are associated with high-moderate to severe LUTS [44] Empagliflozin, which is prescribed for the management of type 2 diabetes, may lead to increased urination, potentially resulting in polyuria

BMI body mass index, BPH benign prostatic hyperplasia, LUTS lower urinary tract symptoms, OAB overactive bladder, PSA prostate-specific antigen, PVR postvoid residual urine volume