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. 2026 Jul 20;17:8850. doi: 10.1038/s41467-026-75417-7

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© The Author(s) 2026

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — a SEM image of the COF/PNSE. b Corresponding elemental mapping images. c EIS Nyquist plots of COF/PNSE at varying temperatures. d Temperature-dependent ionic conductivity of COF/PNSE. e Room-temperature ionic conductivity comparison between PNSE and COF/PNSE. f Activation energy (E_a) for Na⁺ migration in PNSE and COF/PNSE. g Temperature-dependent Na⁺ transference numbers for PNSE and COF/PNSE. h LSV curves of PNSE and COF/PNSE. i Molecular structure and electrostatic potential distribution of PVDF-TrFE-CFE copolymer. j Electrostatic potential distribution of the COF framework. k Calculated adsorption energies of Na⁺ with DMF, COF, TFSI⁻, PTC, and PVDF. l MD simulation snapshots of the PNSE system. m MD simulation snapshots of the COF/PNSE composite system. n Representative simulation snapshots of Na⁺ migration pathways in the COF/PNSE system at room temperature. o Mean squared displacement (MSD) of Na⁺ ions in COF/PNSE and PNSE systems derived from MD simulations.