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. 2026 Aug 18;28:e91756. doi: 10.2196/91756

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©Md Saiful Islam, Sooyong Park, Evelyn Xiaoxiao Ma, Tariq Adnan, Ehsan Hoque. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 18.08.2026.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (ISSN 1438-8871), is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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Group error rates across classification settings and task types. Each panel displays mean error with 95% bootstrap CIs for 2 subgroups (male vs female; White vs non-White; younger than 60 years vs 60 years and older; PD vs non-PD). Rows correspond to (A) finger-tapping, (B) smile, and (C) speech; columns to 3-class classification, binary flexible, and binary restrictive classifiers. P values are shown above each pair (significant when P<.05). Disparities are limited overall, with higher error for non-White users in speech (3-class and binary restrictive) and once in smile (binary restrictive); other comparisons are not significant. PD: Parkinson disease.