Table 2.
List of plant species and their uses for COVID-19 prevention and/or treatment as reported by study participants.
| No. | Common Name (Scientific Name) |
Botanical Family | Parts used | Preparation/Administration | Prevent n (%) |
Treat n (%) |
Prevent & Treat n (%) | Overall n (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. |
Eucalyptus (Eng.), Eucalipto (Pt.) (Eucalyptus sp.) |
Myrtaceae | Leaf | Steam †‡ (inhalation), infusion †(oral) | 244 (62.6) | 72 (18.5) | 50 (12.8) | 266 (68.2) |
| 2. |
Lemon (Eng.), Limão (Pt.) (Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck) |
Rutaceae | Leaf, fruit | Steam †‡ (inhalation), infusion †‡, add to cold water †, syrup †, juice ‡ (oral) | 216 (55.4) | 59 (15.1) | 39 (10) | 236 (60.5) |
| 3. |
Ginger (Eng.), Gengibre (Pt.) (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) |
Zingiberaceae | Rhizome | Infusion †‡, syrup ‡ (both oral) | 139 (35.6) | 50 (12.8) | 28 (7.2) | 161 (41.3) |
| 4. |
Garlic (Eng.), Alho (Pt.) (Allium sativum) |
Amaryllidaceae | Bulb | Raw †, infusion †‡, syrup ‡ (all oral) | 69 (17.7) | 34 (8.7) | 17 (4.4) | 86 (22.1) |
| 5. |
Onion (Eng.), Cebola (Pt.) (Allium cepa L.) |
Amaryllidaceae | Bulb | Syrup †‡, infusion ‡ (both oral) | 53 (13.6) | 19 (4.9) | 9 (2.3) | 63 (16.2) |
| 6. |
Carrot (Eng.), Cenoura (Pt.) (Daucus carota L.) |
Apiaceae | Root | Syrup †‡ (oral) | 25 (6.4) | 7 (1.8) | 4 (1) | 28 (7.2) |
| 7. | Guava (Eng.), Goiaba (Pt.) (Psidium guajava L.) | Myrtaceae | Leaves | Infusion †(oral), decoction ‡ (massage on lower abdomen) | 10 (2.6) | 4 (1) | 0 | 14 (3.6) |
| 8. | Mango tree (Eng.), Mangueira (Pt.) (Mangifera indica L.) | Anacardiaceae | Leaves | Steam †(inhalation) | 4 (1) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 5 (1.3) |
| 9. | Turmeric (Eng.), Acafrão (Pt.) (Curcuma longa L.) | Zingiberaceae | Rhizome | Infusion †, syrup ‡, mixed with hot milk and honey † (oral) | 4 (1) | 3 (0.8) | 3 (0.8) | 4 (1) |
| 10. | Boldo (Eng. and Pt.) (possibly Peumus boldus Molina or Coleus barbatus var barbatus)§ | Monimiaceae / Lamiaceae | Leaves | Infusion † (oral) | 2 (0.5) | 0 | 0 | 2 (0.5) |
| 11. | Cactus (Eng.), Cacto (Pt.) (Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.) | Cactaceae | Stem | Syrup ‡ (oral) | 2 (0.5) | 0 | 0 | 2 (0.5) |
| 12. | Cinnamon (Eng.), Canela (Pt.) (Cinnamomum sp.) | Lauraceae | Stem bark | Herbal paste ‡ (oral) | 2 (0.5) | 0 | 0 | 2 (0.5) |
| 13. | Lemongrass (Eng.), chá príncipe (Pt.), capim-limão (Pt.) (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf) | Poaceae | Leaves | Steam † (inhalation) / Infusion ‡ (oral) | 2 (0.5) | 0 | 0 | 2 (0.5) |
| 14. | Black pepper (Eng.), Pimenta preta (Pt.) (Piper nigrum L.) | Piperaceae | Fruit | Herbal paste ‡ (oral) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| 15. | Cloves (Eng.), Cravinho (Pt.) (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry) | Myrtaceae | Flower bud | Herbal paste ‡ (oral) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| 16. | Cidreira (Pt.) (Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng.) | Verbenaceae | Leaves | Infusion † (oral) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| 17. | Mafurreira (Loc.) (Trichilia emetica Vahl) | Meliaceae | Leaves | Decoction ‡ (massage on lower abdomen) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| 18. | Orange (Eng.), Laranja (Pt.) (Citrus × sinensis) | Rutaceae | Fruit | Juice ‡ (oral) | 0 | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| 19. | Mapfilwa (Loc.) (Vangueria infausta Burch.) | Rubiaceae | Leaves | Decoction ‡ (massage on lower abdomen) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| 20. | Flor de Liz (Pt.) (Scientific name not identified) | Unidentified | Flower | Herbal paste ‡ (oral) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| 21. | Yam (Eng.), Inhame (Pt.) (Dioscorea spp.) | Dioscoreaceae | Tuberous root | Yam milk † (blended with warm water) | 1 (0.3) | 1 (0.3) | 1 (0.3) | 1 (0.3) |
| 22. | Mint (Eng.), Hortelã (Pt.) (Mentha spicata L.) | Lamiaceae | Leaves | Infusion † (oral) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| 23. | Okra (Eng.), Quiabo (Pt.) (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) | Malvaceae | Fruit | Unspecified † | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) |
| * | Lianhua Qingwen Keli (Formulation)* | Commercial herbal mixture | Infusion (oral) | 1 (0.3) | 0 | 0 | 1 (0.3) | |
§ The term “boldo” may refer to either Peumus boldus (Monimiaceae) or Coleus barbatus var. barbatus (Lamiaceae), both of which are commercially available. However, it was not possible to determine which species participants used in this study.
† Used alone, ‡ Used in combination with other plants, †‡ Used both alone and in combination.
* This is a commercial traditional Chinese herbal formulation composed of multiple plant extracts.
Eng. (English), Pt. (Portuguese), Loc. (Local language)