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. 2026 Aug 20;17:1897284. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2026.1897284

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Copyright © 2026 Yue, Alhaskawi, Ezzi and Zhou.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Two infographic panels compare cellular and tissue components. Left panel shows a knee joint cross-section and lists cells and molecules involved in fat pad inflammation—mesenchymal stem cells, macrophages, adipocytes, mast cells, T and B cells, monocytes, NK cells, CD10, and mediators. Right panel illustrates a person with sources of human mesenchymal stem cells: placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic fluid, dental pulp, and bone marrow. — Sources and immunomodulatory interactions of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) relevant to osteoarthritis. Left: infrapatellar fat pad inflammation and joint immune microenvironment involving macrophages, mast cells, T cells, B cells, NK cells, and monocytes. Right: major human tissue sources of MSCs, including bone marrow, adipose tissue, umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic fluid, and dental pulp.