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. 2026 Jul 24;24:471. doi: 10.1186/s12964-026-03023-7

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© The Author(s) 2026

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

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Fig. 4 — Intravenous injection of OTA-induced sEVs caused histopathological changes and increased kidney injury markers in kidney tissue of rats. A The bar diagram depicting the kidney and body weight ratio reflects the condition of kidney. B Absolute GFR (µl/min) was also measured to check the filtration capacity of kidney. C-E The bar diagram represents the concentration (mg/dl) of serum creatinine (SCr) C, serum urea (SUrea) D, and urinary albumin (UAlb) E of vehicle control, OTA, and sEVs-exposed rats. F-J The representative bar graphs show the concentration (pg/ml) of urinary kidney injury markers, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) F, albumin G, cystatin C H, clusterin I, and Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP1) J. All the data were analysed by One-way ANOVA. K Representative images showing the histopathological analysis of v-control, OTA and sEVs-exposed rats. H&E staining (upper row) representing that OTA (210 μg/kg b.wt.) and sEVs (100 μg) exposure-caused glomerular shrinkage (star symbol), hypercellularity in tubules (thick arrow symbol), proximal epithelial cell degeneration (asterisk symbol); MTS (middle row) showing the collagen deposition in tubulointerstitial space (blue color); PAS (lower row) representing the loss of brush border (hash symbol) glycogen deposition in the tubules and tubulointerstitial space (arrowhead symbol); magnification 20x, scale bar 50 µm. (L) Representative photographs of immunohistochemistry show the expression of B2M, cystatin C, calbindin, PCNA, fibronectin, and α-SMA; magnification 20x, scale bar 100 µm. (M) Immunoblotting of the expression of corresponding kidney injury markers. Numbers (1–4) indicate each animal in a given group. V-control = control sEV-injected and vehicle-treated rats, OTA = OTA-exposed rats, sEVs = OTA-induced sEV-injected rats, and N-control = negative control