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. 2026 Aug 31;26(17):5544. doi: 10.3390/s26175544
Algorithm 1: Complete Layered Multi-UAV Planning and Processing Procedure
  •    Input: Map A; UAV set U; sensor set S; obstacle set O; sensing radius Rs; minimum separation dmin; battery limits; and GA, RRT-Connect, MEC, Lyapunov, and safety parameters.

  •    Output: Validated UAV trajectories; LOCAL/MEC processing decisions; queue and residual-energy states; AoI values; safety outcomes; and mission-validity metrics.

  • 1 Initialise the UAV states, sensors, obstacles, MEC node, queues, batteries, and simulation parameters;

  • 2 Partition the sensors into balanced UAV service zones and determine aij subject to (38);

  • graphic file with name sensors-26-05544-i001.webp

  • 11 Validate all UAV routes against sensing coverage, map boundaries, inflated obstacles, path continuity, and prescribed endpoints;

  • 12 Construct the UAV mission timelines and evaluate continuous-time inter-UAV separation;

  • graphic file with name sensors-26-05544-i002.webp

  • 16 Identify the first valid entry into each sensing neighbourhood and record the collection events;

  • graphic file with name sensors-26-05544-i003.webp

  • 29 Perform the final coverage, processing, obstacle-clearance, and continuous-time all-pair safety audits;

  • 30 Compute mission completion time, AoI, energy consumption, queue backlog, LOCAL/MEC rates, dropped-task count, and minimum UAV separation;

  • 31 return the validated trajectories, processing decisions, system states, and final performance metrics;