Table 2.

Major molecular constituents identified in MVs derived from different Gram-positive probiotic bacteria and their biological functions

Bacterial strain	Major MV components	Key biological functions	References
Lactiplantibacillus plantarum	Serine-rich proteins; ABC transporters; surface-associated proteins; GAPDH; LTA; sRNAs	Anti-inflammatory activity; macrophage/Treg modulation; protection against AD-associated inflammation	[39, 91, 96, 97, 100, 101]
Limosilactobacillus reuteri	gtfG, DegP, GroL, EF-Tu; AMPs and proteases; glycerolipids and sphingolipids; reuterin	Immune homeostasis; antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity; tissue repair	[91, 95, 98, 103]
Bifidobacterium longum	ABC transporters; quorum-sensing and solute-binding proteins; mucin-binding proteins; LTA	Immune modulation, mast-cell regulation, and improvement of AD-like barrier dysfunction	[91, 104–107]
Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus	LTA; cell-wall and transport proteins; ribosomal proteins; miRNAs	TLR2-associated immune modulation, IL-10 induction, and wound repair	[99, 108, 109]
Lactobacillus gasseri	Bacteriocins; phage-associated proteins; lysozyme; APF-2; LTA; RNA	Host–microbe interaction, antimicrobial activity, and suppression of T-cell-mediated inflammation	[102, 110, 111]
Lactococcus lactis	Metabolic enzymes; phage-associated proteins; nisin Z	Immune regulation and antibacterial activity	[112–114]
Lacticaseibacillus casei	Cell-wall hydrolases; lysozyme; P45, p40, p75; LTA; muramidases	Antibiofilm activity, EGFR-mediated repair, and anti-inflammatory effects	[115–119]
Lactobacillus acidophilus	SplA, GAPDH, mucus-binding protein, bacteriocin, FmtB, ABC transporter ATPase	Antibacterial activity and balanced macrophage immunomodulation	[115, 120]