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. 2026 Sep 2;36:e2605001. doi: 10.4014/jmb.2605.05001

Fig. 1. Mechanistic pathways of probiotics in CMDs via gut microbiota modulation.

Fig. 1

Probiotics directly counteract CMDs by restoring microbial balance, enhancing the abundance of beneficial bacteria and decreasing harmful species. Furthermore, probiotics mediate therapeutic effects through enhancing the biosynthesis of SCFAs and BAs while inhibiting TMAO formation. Additionally, modulation of the immune-inflammatory system and intestinal barrier function synergistically contribute to CMD pathophysiology.