Table 2.

Behavioral phenotypes of non-adherence and corresponding intervention strategies.

Adherence phenotype	Underlying drivers	Typical clinical presentation	Targeted intervention strategy
Unintentional non-adherence	Forgetfulness, competing priorities, regimen complexity, poor inhaler technique, limited treatment knowledge	Patients willingness to adhere but demonstrate inconsistent medication use or incorrect inhaler handling	Digital reminders, regimen simplification, pharmacist-led inhaler technique training, structured educational interventions
Intentional non-adherence	Negative treatment beliefs, fear of adverse effects, perceived lack of benefit, medication skepticism	Deliberate dose reduction, intermittent use, or treatment discontinuation despite prescription availability	Shared decision-making, motivational interviewing, individualized risk–benefit counseling, health literacy interventions
Complex or multifactorial non-adherence	Combined perceptual, behavioral, social, psychological, and structural barriers	Persistent poor adherence; mental health disorders, social deprivation, or multimorbidity	Multidisciplinary integrating pharmacy, behavioral health, social support, and intensive management