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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Sep 29.
Published in final edited form as: Nat Rev Mater. 2025 Nov 21;11(4):328–342. doi: 10.1038/s41578-025-00861-8

Fig. 3 |. Functionalizing protein-based biomaterials for therapeutic effects.

Fig. 3 |

a, Some examples of the ways in which protein-based materials can be functionalized, including coating a nanotube, functionalizing a 2D array, decorating a nanoparticle, loading a nanoparticle and loading a hydrogel. Yellow and orange spheres represent any bioactive or therapeutic group. b, Key strategies for covalent decoration and loading of various protein-based biomaterials. Examples include N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)-ester and maleimide chemistries to attach an active group to a protein, SpyTag/SpyCatcher covalent bond-forming protein pairs to covalently link a bioactive group to a protein of interest and genetic fusion for expression of a protein and therapeutic as a single polypeptide chain. c, Examples of the many bioactive components that could be used, including small molecules, nucleotides, proteins and cells when loading or decorating protein-based materials. These components impart additional therapeutic effects that the materials may not have on their own. Part b adapted with permission from ref. 219, Taylor & Francis.