Table 2.

Universal characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of different nano-carrier systems

Nanocarrier	Key features	Advantages	Disadvantages
Organic Nanocarriers
Polymeric material nanocarriers [67–70]	• Possess biodegradable polymers • AMPs can be dispersed within the matrix or functionalized at the nanocarrier’s surface	• Slow and sustained AMP release • Higher loading capacity • Selected and targeted delivery via ligand functionalization	• Complex manufacturing procedures and scale-up challenges • Potential cytotoxicity from polymer-degraded products
Lipid nanocarriers [67–69]	• Amphiphilic phospholipid bilayer vesicles having an aqueous core • Encapsulates hydrophilic and hydrophobic AMPs	• Slow and sustained AMP release with membrane-fusion–mediated delivery • Reduce cytotoxicity • Biocompatible • Surface modification (PEGylation)	• Low circulation half-lives • Instability and rapid clearance by the RES • Low circulation half-lives • Low drug loading capacity • Leakage of encapsulated drugs • Immunogenicity
Peptide-Dendrimer Hybrids [67–69]	• Branched, monodisperse dendritic scaffolds conjugated with multiple AMP branches	• Protease-resistant • Low haemolytic activity • High efficacy	• Immunogenicity • Complex manufacturing procedures and scale-up challenges
Cyclodextrin nanocarriers [67–69]	• Macrocyclic oligosaccharides with hydrophobic cavities form inclusion complexes for AMPs	• Enhance solubility and stability • Protect from proteolysis • Improved bioavailability • Biofilm penetration	• Limited loading capacity • Premature payload leakage • Variable biocompatibility
Nucleic acid nanosystems [67–69]	• Programmable DNA, RNA structures, aptamers, origami, and tetrahedral frameworks with AMP conjugation	• High specificity via aptamer targeting • Stimuli-responsive release • Precise structural control • Biocompatibility	• Undergo nuclease degradation • Immunogenicity • Complex design and synthesis
Self-assembled AMPs [67–69]	• AMPs are engineered to form nanostructures via non-covalent interactions (e.g., micelles, hydrogels)	• No exogenous carrier is needed • Stimuli-responsive disassembly • Highly biocompatible • Intrinsic antimicrobial function	• Low reproducibility • Unclear pharmacokinetics • Environmental sensitivity (pH, ionic strength
Inorganic Nanocarriers
Metallic nanoparticles [70–73]	• Gold (Au), silver (Ag), or zinc oxide nanoparticles can be functionalized with AMPs • Exhibit intrinsic bactericidal activity • Rigid inorganic frameworks, either with pore sizes or layered structures	• Synergistic bactericidal effects due to ROS generation and membrane disruption • Multimodal uses such as imaging and therapy • High AMP loading capacity and stability • Stimulus-triggered response	• Potential cytotoxicity • Tendency to aggregate within the biological medium • Metal toxicity • Unstable within physiological conditions • Poorly biodegradable • Challenging clearance pathways • Complex synthesis