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. 2026 Jun 11;9(4):495–507. doi: 10.1093/abt/tbag032

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© The Author(s) 2026. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Chinese Antibody Society.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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For image description, please refer to the figure legend and surrounding text. — Schematic illustration of the generation of a three-dimensional (3D) immune tumor model for preclinical studies [1]. Tumor cells are cultured as a monolayer for 1–5 days to enable the formation of [2] 3D tumor spheroids [3]. Therapeutic antibodies (Abs) of different isotypes are applied separately to individual spheroids. (4a) Complement (C′)-containing medium is added to assess complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC). (4b) Human monocytes (Mo) are added to assess antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP).