2. Quantitative Comparison of Recent Development in Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage Technologies.

technology	conversion efficiency (%)	energy requirement	products	technology readiness	critical quantitative interpretation
MOFs	80–95	low-moderate	CO, CH4	pilot-emerging	high reported conversion efficiency, technology mature, and scale-up remain important limitations
electrochemical CO2 reduction	40–70	2–8 kWh per kg CO2	CO, ethylene, ethanol	pilot-early commercial	high conversion efficiency, but electricity demand can strongly influence environmental and economic performance
photocatalytic conversion −	0.2–1	solar-driven	CH4, CO, methanol, HCOOH	lab-pilot	lower conversion efficiency, but potentially favorable where solar energy is available and process energy is low-carbon
biobased reduction	1–5	low	biomass, biofuels	commercial-pilot	lower conversion efficiency but potentially lower transformation-energy requirements and compatibility with biological carbon-circularity pathways
artificial photosynthesis	1–10	solar-driven	liquid fuels, methanol	early stage	solar-driven conversion provides sustainability potential, but efficiency and technology maturity remain major constraints