Table 2.

GRADE evidence profile – oral cancer education interventions.

Outcome	Contributing studies	Summary of findings	Risk of bias	Inconsistency	Indirectness	Imprecision	Publication bias	Overall certainty (Grade)
Knowledge and awareness of oral cancer and OPMDs	Seoane‐Lestón et al. [17]; Hertrampf et al. [27]; Hertrampf et al. [16]; Nethan et al. [14]; Moafa et al. [15]; Gaballah et al. [28]; Braun et al. [8]; Cardoso et al. [2]; Sari et al. [18]	All nine studies reported higher postintervention knowledge or awareness compared with baseline. However, the educational interventions, assessment methods, and outcome measures varied across studies.	Serious	Moderate	Not serious	Serious	Suspected	Low
Diagnostic accuracy and lesion recognition	Seoane‐Lestón et al. [17]; Gaballah et al. [28]; Braun et al. [8]; Cardoso et al. [2]; Sari et al. [18]	Five studies reported higher postintervention diagnostic accuracy or lesion recognition. Improvements in recognising benign lesions and OPMDs were more consistently reported than improvements in recognising malignant lesions.	Serious	Moderate	Not serious	Serious	Suspected	Low
Confidence and self‐efficacy	Nethan et al. [14]; Moafa et al. [15]; Gaballah et al. [28]; Braun et al. [8]; Sari et al. [18]	Five studies reported higher confidence or self‐efficacy related to oral cancer screening, lesion recognition, patient counselling, or referral following the educational intervention.	Serious	Moderate	Not serious	Serious	Suspected	Low
Screening and referral practices	Nethan et al. [14]; Cardoso et al. [2]; Sari et al. [18]	Three studies reported changes in oral cancer screening practices, clinical examination, or referral behaviour following educational interventions. These outcomes were primarily based on self‐reported practice measures.	Serious	Serious	Moderate	Serious	Suspected	Very low
Patient‐related outcomes	None	None of the included studies evaluated patient‐centred outcomes such as earlier diagnosis, stage at diagnosis, treatment outcomes, or survival following educational interventions.	—	—	—	—	—	Not assessed