Table 1.
Distribution of translational readiness characteristics across included studies (n=92).
| Dimension and category | Studies, n (%) | |
| TRLa level | ||
|
|
Level 3 | 71 (77.2) |
|
|
Level 4 | 19 (20.7) |
|
|
Level 5 | 1 (1.1) |
|
|
Level 7 | 1 (1.1) |
| Yang autonomy level | ||
|
|
Level 0 | 89 (96.7) |
|
|
Level 1 | 3 (3.3) |
| Real-time capability | ||
|
|
Offline | 53 (57.6) |
|
|
Near-real-time | 16 (17.4) |
|
|
Real-time | 23 (25.0) |
| Interpretability | ||
|
|
None | 21 (22.8) |
|
|
Post hoc | 5 (5.4) |
|
|
Built-in | 66 (71.7) |
| Adaptivity | ||
|
|
None | 84 (91.3) |
|
|
Skill-stratified | 2 (2.2) |
|
|
Adaptive | 6 (6.5) |
| Validation environment | ||
|
|
Simulation only | 14 (15.2) |
|
|
Laboratory/cadaver | 39 (42.4) |
|
|
Clinical | 26 (28.3) |
|
|
Mixed | 13 (14.1) |
| External validation | ||
|
|
No | 35 (38) |
|
|
Cross-task | 24 (26.1) |
|
|
Cross-dataset | 19 (20.7) |
|
|
Cross-site | 14 (15.2) |
| Clinical integration | ||
|
|
Brief | 78 (84.8) |
|
|
Detailed | 14 (15.2) |
aTRL: technology readiness level.