. 2026 Oct 9;17:1977402. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2026.1977402

Table 2.

The antioxidant assay, phytochemicals content, physicochemical characteristics, and engineering properties of the additives.

Parameter	Additives
Parameter	C₇H₅O₂Na (0.1% w/v)	CSE	CiE	BLE	GRE	Lime juice	Honey
DPPH (%)	5.32^a ± 0.16	91.00^f ± 2.2	92.57^f ± 0.38	89.92^d ± 1.15	93.56^e ± 0.39	75.72^c ± 0.55	65.12^b ± 0.33
TPC (mg GAE/100 mL)	0.00^a ± 0.00	510.61^g ± 1.21	460.06^f ± 1.01	354.27^d ± 0.87	400.56^e ± 1.17	116.7^9c ± 1.48	91.03^b ± 1.68
TFC (mg QE/100 mL)	0.00^a ± 0.00	162.99^g ± 0.81	138.13^f ± 1.88	113.56^d ± 2.89	125.91^e ± 2.33	27.13^c ± 0.25	17.04^b ± 0.67
FRAP (μmol Fe²⁺/mL)	0.13^a ± 0.03	26.63^g ± 0.38	23.89^f ± 1.07	18.52^d ± 0.33	19.93^e ± 1.51	8.64^c ± 0.20	6.15^b ± 0.13
VC (mg/100 mL)	0.00^a ± 0.00	1.79^c ± 0.02	1.03^b ± 0.05	1.42^bc ± 0.05	6.58^d ± 0.18	52.00^e ± 0.70	1.25^b ± 0.04
pH	7.69^f ± 0.20	5.65^cd ± 0.12	5.48^c ± 0.08	6.17e ± 0.06	5.74^d ± 0.09	2.46^a ± 0.04	4.21^b ± 0.02
TSS (°Brix)	0.09^a ± 0.02	3.07^b ± 0.08	2.81^b ± 0.03	2.42^b ± 0.05	2.92^b ± 0.04	9.35^c ± 0.12	88.09^d ± 1.19
EC (mS/cm)	1.08^a ± 0.02	3.65^e ± 0.09	3.33^d ± 0.03	3.03^c ± 0.06	3.44^d ± 0.07	5.76^f ± 0.10	2.60^b ± 0.05
λ (W/m·K)	0.63^d ± 0.03	0.51b ± 0.03	0.54^bc ± 0.01	0.56^c ± 0.02	0.52^b ± 0.02	0.64^d ± 0.02	0.41^a ± 0.02
Viscosity (mPa·s)	0.98^a ± 0.03	2.28^e ± 0.07	2.14^d ± 0.03	1.92^c ± 0.12	2.08^d ± 0.03	1.16^b ± 0.02	9.45^d ± 0.10
ɛ	70.61^d ± 0.61	47.61^b ± 0.47	45.24^b ± 0.4	49.72^b ± 0.70	48.50^b ± 0.20	65.49^c ± 0.45	38.89^a ± 0.30

Mean ± standard deviation; n = 3; λ–thermal conductivity; ɛ–dielectric constant; EC–electrical conductivity; VC–vitamin C; TSS–total soluble solids; CSE–clove seed extract; CiE–cinnamon extract; BLE–bay leaf extract; GRE–ginger rhizome extract; Means with similar letter within the same row do not differ significantly (p ≤ 0.05), according to DMRT.