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. 2026 Oct 14;17:1946700. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2026.1946700

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Copyright © 2026 Liao, Hou, Song, Yu, Li, Lu, Zheng and Chen.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Forest plot visualizing AUROC values from multiple studies of predictive models, categorized by external, internal split/holdout, resampling/internal validation, or unclear development, with colored dots and confidence intervals. A pooled estimate and prediction interval are displayed at the bottom. — Forest plot of primary AUROC estimates from the 35 independent study-level model contexts included in the quantitative synthesis.