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. 2026 Oct 16;14:1976532. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2026.1976532

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Copyright © 2026 Jin, Lu, Wu, Zuo, Zheng and Cheng.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Diagram showing four methods for combining extracellular vesicles (EVs) with hydrogels: combining EVs after crosslinking, crosslinking after combining EVs, in situ crosslinking using a syringe, and 3D bioprinting using bioink, each resulting in EVs-loaded hydrogel. — Strategies for integrating EVs with hydrogels. According to the timing and method of EV incorporation relative to hydrogel network formation, EV-hydrogel integration can be broadly categorized into four strategies: (1) incorporation of EVs into preformed hydrogels, (2) crosslinking after mixing EVs with hydrogel precursors, (3) in situ crosslinking of EV-containing hydrogel precursors at the treatment site, and (4) three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting of EV-containing bioinks. EVs, extracellular vesicles; 3D, three-dimensional.