Table 2.

Medical substances of animal origin in the Levant in the 10^th–18^thcentury

Scientific Name	Common Name	Figure no.	Extract/Product	Selected Sources	Selected Uses
Ammoperdix heyi	Desert partridge		Meat	[70]	Strengthens the stomach
Angulus sp.	Sea Shell (Tallina)		Shell	[46]	Mild purgative; women's diseases
Anser anser	Goose		Oil	[70]	Unknown
Apis mellifica	Honey		Honey	[55, 67, 69, 70]	Skin, eye, and stomach diseases, haemorrhoids, burns and wounds. Strengthens and cleans stomach and lungs.
Apis mellifica	Wax	1 – wax	Wax	[49, 55, 70]	Haemorrhoids, burns, and wounds
Archispirostreptus syriacus			Body	[67]	Removes unwanted hair from the eyelids
Avicula margarittifera	Pearl		Pearl	[70, 71]	Eye, heart, and liver ailments
Bombyx mori	Silkworm	2 – cocoon	Cocoon, Larva	[64]	Wounds, throat inflammation, haemorrhoids
Bos Taurus	Cow	3 – hard cheese	Milk, Cheese, Butter	[64, 67, 70, 71]	Eye diseases, haemorrhoids, leprosy. Strengthens the stomach, cleans the blood; treats skin diseases
Capra hircus mambrica	Goat		Cheese	[67, 70]	Cancer and skin diseases; fattens; enhances libido, reinforces potency
Castor fiber	Common Beaver		Testicles	[55, 57, 71]	Eye diseases, animal bites and stings, cramp, epilepsy, hysteria.
Chamydotis undulate	Bustard		Body parts	[64]	Eye diseases; breaks up kidney stones
Cimex lectularius	Stinkbug		Body	[46, 64, 67]	Clears urinary tract obstructions; jaundice
Coleoptera sp.	Scarabees		Body	[67]	Haemorrhoids; enhances libido
Echis coloratus	Adder, Ter	4 – adder in the Judean desert	Body	[45, 47, 57, 62, 60, 63, 71]	Basic component of theriac; snake bites
Equus asinus	Ass		Body parts	[67]	Haemorrhoids, eye diseases, epilepsy
Equus asinus X Equus cabllus	Mule		Body parts	[64]	Rheumatism, eye diseases, internal diseases
Gallus gallus domesticus	Hen		Egg parts	[67, 70, 71]	Wide variety of uses including reinforcement of potency and enhancing libido
Gazella sp.	Gazelle		Horn	[70]	Cleans the blood
Helix sp.	Snail		Body	[67]	Haemorrhoids and internal diseases
Homo sapiens	Mummy		Mummified body parts	[64, 71]	Headache, skin, internal diseases, ulcer
Homo sapiens	Human		Urine	[67]	Sciatica, skin, internal diseases
Homo sapiens	Human		Bone	[71]	Unknown
Homo sapiens	Human		Stone	[71]	Unknown
Lampyris sp.	Firefly		Body	[64]	Breaking up kidney stones; haemorrhoids
Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus	Scorpion		Body	[67, 71]	Haemorrhoids; skin diseases; component of theriac
Lumbricus sp.	Earthworm		Body	[70, 71]	Haemorrhoids; earache, arthritis, clears obstructions of the urinary tract
Lytta vesicatoria	Spanish fly		Body	[71]	Raises a blister, counter-irritant
Merops sp.	Bee eater		Body parts	[64]	Colds and skin diseases
Moschus moschiferus	Musk Deer		Rectal gland	[47, 51, 52, 70, 71]	Purgative; eye diseases, headaches; reinforces potency, heart diseases; 'cold' ailments
Mus musculus	House mouse		Ash, body parts	[67]	Haemorrhoids, skin diseases, wounds, insanity
Muscicapa sp./Ficedula sp.	Flycatcher		Body parts	[64]	Skin, eye, internal diseases; jaundice and spleen inflammation
Ovis	Lamb		Body parts	[70]	Strengthens the body, increases weight, cleans the blood
Paraechinus aethiopicus pectoralis	Hedgehog		Skin, spines, blood	[67]	Expels fleas (Pulex irritans)
Pediculus sp.	Louse		Body	[67]	Clears urinary tract obstructions
Physeter catodon	Sperm Whale (Ambergris)		Intestinal secretion	[43, 47, 71]	Sore throat, heart diseases, paralysis, cough, cardiac diseases, hysteria
Rana ridibunda	Frog		Body	[67, 71]	Haemorrhoids, wounds, bleeding, rheumatism
Sepia officinalis	Cuttle Fish	5 – skeleton	Skeleton	[46, 71]	Skin and tooth diseases; clears obstruction of the urinary tract
Struthio camelus	Ostrich egg shell		Egg shell	[67]	Eye diseases
Titurus vittatus	Triton		Body	[46, 59, 64]	Reinforces potency and enhances libido
Tubipora Musica or Corallium rubrum	Coral		Body	[50, 61, 70, 71]	Eye diseases and bleeding; strengthens the heart; headache, cough rheumatism, kills worms
Unidentified	Ant		Body	[67]	Jaundice
Unidentified	Lizard		Secretion	[67]	Eye diseases
Unidentified	Kermes		Insect body	[71]	Unknown
Unidentified	Fish		Meat	[70, 71]	Helps digestion, treats internal diseases, strengthens the nerves
Unidentified	Lacca		Secretion	[71]	Unknown
Vivera civetta	Civat Cat (Zebed)		Gland secretion	[67]	Reinforces male potency; ear inflammation
Vulpes sp.	Fox		Oil	[71]	Unknown