TABLE 1.
—Review of Studies of Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and Severe Antisocial Behavior in Offspring
| Studya | Design | Sample | Measurement of Exposure | Exposed, % | Measurement of Outcome | Main Outcomes (Adjusted) |
| Studies of conduct disorder (CD) | ||||||
| Wakschlag et al.9 | Clinic-based case–control | 177 males (7–17 y), Georgia and Pennsylvania | Retrospective, self-report: "How much did you smoke during pregnancy?" | 37 | CD by diagnostic interview, multiple time points | OR for CD in boys = 3.3 (>½pack/day) |
| Fergusson et al.6 | Population-based prospective cohort | 1265 males and females (18 y), New Zealand | Self-report at birth: “How much did you smoke during pregnancy | 32 | 32CD symptoms by diagnostic interview | Linear increase in boys' mean CD score as exposure increased: 0.48 for nonexposed, 0.76 for < ½pack/day, 1.04 for ≥½pack/day, 1.32 for ≥pack/day |
| Weissman et al.12 | Offspring of case-control study of maternal depression | 147 males and females (17-36 y), New York | Retrospective, self-report: "Did you ever smoke more than 1 /2 pack/day during pregnancy?" | 34 | CD by diagnostic interview | RR for male early-onset CD = 4.1 (≥ ½pack/day) |
| Wakschlag and Keenan10 | Clinic-based case-control | 129 males and females (2-5 y), Chicago, Ill | Retrospective, self-report: "How much did you smoke during pregnancy?" | 23 | ODD and CD symptoms by diagnostic interview | Mean ODD and CD score was 1.54 higher for exposed vs nonexposed |
| Studies of criminal offending | ||||||
| Brennan et al.5 | Population-based prospective cohort | 4169 males (34 y), Denmark | Prospective, self-report, while pregnant: "How much have you been smoking daily during the third trimester?" | 51 | Arrest history from national criminal register | OR for male persistent offending = 1.5, OR for male violent offending = 1.7 (> ½ pack/day)b |
| Rasanen et al.8 (see also Rantakallio et al.104) | Population-based prospective cohort | 3883 males (16 y), Finland | Prospective, self-report, while pregnant: "Have you been smoking daily during pregnancy?" | 16 | Criminal offense from national criminal register | OR for male recidivism = 2.4, OR for male violent offending = 2.1 (any exposure) |
| Gibson et al.33 (see also Gibson and Tibbetts7,100) | Population-based prospective cohort | 200 males and females (17 y), Philadelphia, Pa | Prospective, self-report: "How much have you been smoking daily during pregnancy?" | 50 | Age at first police contact from city police records | OR for early-onset offending = 2.6 for boys and 3.5 for girls (> ½ pack/day)b |
Note. OR = odds ratio; RR = relative risk; ODD = oppositional defiant disorder.
aRelated findings from the same cohort that have been reported in multiple articles are represented only once in this review.
bCalculated from data presented by the authors.