TABLE 1.

—Studies of Perceived Discrimination and Health

	Positive Associationa	Negative Associationb	Conditional Associationc	No Associationd	Total
Mental health studies
Well-being	15, 18, 20, 35, 42			45	6
Self-esteem	25, 40, 46, 47			45	5
Control/mastery	27, 48			45	3
Psychological distress	15, 18, 20, 21, 25–39, 41		42–44	19, 40	25
Major depression	23, 34, 49			21	4
Anxiety disorder	34				1
Other mental disorder	23, 50				2
Anger	50				1
Total	38	0	3	6	47
Physical health studies
Self-rated health	15–17, 23, 24, 51				6
Other self-report	15, 16, 20, 23, 37, 51		19, 52	23, 24, 33	11
Blood pressure	52, 55, 56		23, 24, 57, 58, 59	55, 60, 61	11
Other cardiovascular	62			24, 61	3
Mortality			22		1
Very low birthweight			63	64	2
Total	16	0	9	9	34
Health behavior studies
Smoking	26, 65, 66				3
Alcohol	67, 68				2
Total	5	0	0	0	5
Overall total	59	0	12	15	86

Note. Italicized numbers represent the relevant article’s location in the reference list. Totals are the sums of the numbers of articles reporting various types of empirical associations between perceived discrimination and indicators of health status/health risk. Many of the articles reviewed examined multiple outcomes, so the number of associations summarized (86) exceeded the number of articles examined (53).

^aDefined as more perceived discrimination associated with higher levels of illness/health risk.

^bDefined as more perceived discrimination associated with lower levels of illness/health risk.

^cDefined as a positive association but only under some conditions.

^dDiscrimination unrelated to health status/health risk.