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Early steps of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants and algae. Intermediates labeled in chalkboard letters are colorless. Small arrows show the position of newly formed double bonds. GGPP, geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate; PSY, phytoene synthase; PDS, phytoene desaturase; ZDS, ζ-carotene desaturase; PQ, oxidized plastoquinone; PQH2, reduced plastoquinone (plastoquinol).
