Participants, Study Characteristics, and Frames for Health Behavior Scenarios

Study	Subjects	Design	Scenario Presented	Frames	Outcomes	Methodological Comment
Positive Versus Negative Framing
Linville 199320	Students, number not reported	Non-RCT parallel groups	Information presented on the use of condoms to prevent HIV.	Positive frame—% success rate Negative frame—% failure rate	Intention to use condoms	No control group. Little methodological information provided.
Gain Versus Loss Framing
Wong 200237	Current smokers: Students participating for course requirement N = 31 General public N = 39	RCT parallel groups	Written information on the advantages and disadvantages of quitting smoking.	Gain frame—benefits for quitting smoking Loss frame—costs for not quitting smoking	Actual behavior (if quit smoking)	No control group. Three months' follow-up. Baseline characteristics on age, gender, smoking behavior, subject group, and self-efficacy comparable.
Schneider 200139	Students, smokers, and non-smokers N = 437	RCT parallel groups	Eight-minute audio-visual presentation about quitting smoking.	Gain frame—benefits for quitting smoking, positive images Loss frame—costs for not quitting smoking, negative images	Actual behavior (cigarettes smoked)	No control group. Six weeks' follow-up. Completed tasks in groups. Adjusted analyses used.
van Assema 200140	Students N = 152	RCT Parallel groups	Booklet containing information on the impact of diet on general health, cancer, and heart disease. Two dietary descriptions (fruit and vegetable vs fat intake).	Gain frame—chance for good health by having a good diet Loss frame—chance of disease by not having a good diet	Intention to begin a healthy diet and request a self-help guide	No control group. 2 × 2 design (framing by dietary description). Completed tasks in groups (ordered not to talk to classmates). Baseline characteristics on age, gender, and education comparable.
Martinez 200023	Students N = 151	Non-RCT parallel groups	Two-hour HIV prevention intervention session.	Gain frame—not described Loss frame—not described Control—not described	Intention to use condoms	Little methodological information. Assessed HIV attitudes, intentions, and behavior at baseline and at 2 months, follow-up.
Detweiler 199913	Beach-goers age >18 approached at a public beach. Received free lottery ticket on completion N = 217	RCT parallel groups	Presented in brochure format information on the use of SPF 15+ sun screen to protect against skin cancer.	Gain frame—benefits gained/undesirable outcomes avoided by sun-protective behavior Loss frame—benefits foregone/undesirable outcomes incurred by unsafe behavior	Actual behavior and intention to use sun screen	No control group. Blinding (investigators unaware of assignment). Some questionnaires completed in groups. Alternate allocation to framing groups. Adjusted analyses used. Results stratified by baseline intention to use sun screen.
Rothman 199930 Study 2	Students responding to posted notice. Received $5 for completing experiment N = 120	RCT parallel groups	Received pamphlet with information on an oral hygiene behavior that prevents dental health problems. Described reasons for using mouth rinse to prevent plaque accumulation.	Gain frame—benefits of using mouth rinse to prevent disease Loss frame—costs associated with not using mouth rinse	Actual behavior and intention to use mouth wash, willingness to pay for mouth wash	No control group. Some questionnaires completed in groups. Baseline characteristics on gender reported but not examined by framing group. Loss frame group had higher ratings of perceived risk, seriousness, and anxiety of developing gum disease.
Rothman 199329 Study 1	Caucasian students N = 525	Non-RCT parallel groups	Provided skin cancer information sheet describing ways to prevent skin cancer.	Positive frame—benefits and positive aspects of performing sun-protective behaviors Negative frame—risks of not performing sun-protective behaviors	Intention to use sun screen	No control group. Task administered in groups (instructed to complete individually). No information on how participants were allocated to groups. Results stratified by gender.
Rothman 199329 Study 2	Caucasian students participating for course credit or responding to posted notice (received $5 for completing experiment) N = 146	RCT parallel groups	Information sheet from study 1 was converted into a 4-page pamphlet. Provided information on preventing skin cancer by performing sun-protective behaviors.	Positive frame—emphasized benefits and positive aspects of performing sun-protective behaviors Negative frame—emphasized risks of not performing sun-protective behaviors	Actual behavior (sunscreen requests)	No control group. Completed task in group setting. Results stratified by gender.
Wilson 199034	Cardiovascular patients referred by cardiologists or responded to newspaper advertisement. Current smokers N = 70	RCT parallel groups	Information on how to quit smoking was presented in the form of contracts. Participants and counselors negotiated contract and reward on reaching goals.	Gain frame—if complete contract will receive reward. Mixed frame—if complete contract will receive reward, if not complete contract will not receive reward.	Actual behavior (cigarettes smoked)	Mixed frame control group. Twelve months' follow-up. Baseline characteristics on age, gender, cigarettes smoked, desire to quit, cessation self-efficacy, and counseling variables comparable between groups. Gain frame subjects were heavier smokers in past than mixed frame group.
Robberson 198828	Female psychology students who did not exercise regularly N = 84	RCT parallel groups	Provided written information describing the impact of exercise on health (e.g., stamina, weight loss) and self-esteem (e.g., self-confidence, appearance).	Positive frame—advantages of exercise program. Negative frame—disadvantages of not being involved in exercise program Mixed frame—combined positive and negative information Control—no information, completed questionnaire containing measures	Intention to exercise	No information control group. 2 × 3 design (health vs self-esteem by framing and control). Subjects participated in groups. No information on baseline characteristics. Assessed confounders of credibility of information and beliefs in severity, vulnerability, and self-efficacy in relation to exercise.

RCT, randomized controlled trial; non-RCT, nonrandomized controlled trial; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus.