Table 1.

An Overview of Competitive, Individualistic, and Cooperative Learning Characteristics

Structure of Student–Student
Interactions in the Classroom	Common Characteristics
Competitive Learning	• Students work individually.
	• Students have common learning goals and tasks.
	• The instructor grades students using norm-referenced methods (e.g., curve-based grading).
Individualistic Learning	• Students work individually.
	• Students have individualized learning goals and tasks, different from those of other students.
	• The instructor grades students using criteria-referenced methods (e.g., rubric-based grading).
Cooperative Learning	• Students work in small groups.
	• Students have shared learning goals and tasks within a group which may be similar or different from
	other groups.
	• The instructor grades students both on their work as a group and on their individual work.