TABLE 8.

Effects of alcohol on immune functions

Mode of administration	Immune functiona	Reference(s)
In vivo
Mice	↓↑Cytokine production	3, 94, 210, 246, 248, 249, 251
	↓NK activity	141, 249
	↓IgA and IgG production	249
	↑Apoptosis	61
	↓DTH	245, 246
Rats	↓TNF-α	114, 158
	↓Serum chemokines	266
	↓TNF-α processing	267
	↓Alveolar nitric oxide	70, 114
	↓Chemokines production by Kupffer cells	17
Humans	↓Monocyte stimulated proliferation	232
In vitro
Mice	↓Macrophage killing	26
	↑Bactericidal capacity	263
	↓Cytokine production	41
Humans	↓Macrophage killing	26
	↓↑Cytokine production	25, 68, 231, 233, 234, 244
	↓TNF-α receptor	25
	↓NF-κB activation	129
	↓T-cell proliferation	232
Rhesus macaques	↓TNF-α	226

^a↑, increase; ↓, decrease; ↑↓, both increase and decrease; DTH, delayed-type hypersensitivity.