Table 3.

Multivariate associations between CES-D–defined depressive symptoms and demographic and health characteristics (n = 606)

Variables	OR (95% CI)	P value
Ethnicity*		0.95
African American vs. white	1.0 (0.5–1.9)	0.99
Native American vs. white	0.9 (0.5–1.7)	0.79
African American vs. Native American	1.1 (0.6–2.1)	0.79
Sex (female vs. male)	1.8 (1.0–3.1)	0.048
Age (years)	1.0 (0.9–1.0)	0.28
Formal education		<0.0001
High school vs. less than high school	0.3 (0.1–0.6)	0.0007
At least some college vs. less than high school	0.1 (0.0–0.3)	0.0003
At least some college vs. high school	0.2 (0.0–1.1)	0.058
Poverty status		0.73
No Medicaid, <$25,000 vs. on Medicaid	1.1 (0.6–2.0)	0.71
No Medicaid, ≥$25,000 vs. on Medicaid	1.4 (0.6–3.5)	0.43
No Medicaid, <$25,000 vs. no Medicaid, ≥$25,000	0.8 (0.3–1.8)	0.54
Living arrangement		0.049
Living with others and unmarried vs. living alone	2.3 (1.2–4.3)	0.014
Living with others and married vs. living alone	1.5 (0.8–2.9)	0.24
Living with others: unmarried vs. married	1.5 (0.8–2.9)	0.21
Diabetes duration (decades)	1.0 (0.8–1.3)	0.90
BMI (kg/m2)	0.9 (0.9–1.0)	0.019
HbA1c (%)	1.0 (0.8–1.2)	0.92
Diabetes therapy		0.35
Oral agent only vs. no medication	0.8 (0.4–1.7)	0.54
Insulin with or without oral agents vs. no medication	0.5 (0.2–1.3)	0.18
Oral agent only vs. insulin with or without oral agents	1.5 (0.8–2.7)	0.22
Number of prescription medications (>5 vs. ≤5)	2.3 (1.3–4.1)	0.0036
Number of chronic conditions (>5 vs. ≤5)	2.4 (1.4–4.1)	0.0012
PCS (÷10)	0.7 (0.6–1.0)	0.021

^*Ethnicity remains nonsignificant (P value = 0.47) after dropping formal education and poverty status as covariates.