Skip to main content
Thorax logoLink to Thorax
. 2000 Jul;55(7):603–613. doi: 10.1136/thorax.55.7.603

Molecular mechanisms of glucocorticoid action: what is important?

R Newton 1
PMCID: PMC1745805  PMID: 10856322

Full Text

The Full Text of this article is available as a PDF (214.6 KB).

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Akerblom I. E., Slater E. P., Beato M., Baxter J. D., Mellon P. L. Negative regulation by glucocorticoids through interference with a cAMP responsive enhancer. Science. 1988 Jul 15;241(4863):350–353. doi: 10.1126/science.2838908. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Auphan N., DiDonato J. A., Rosette C., Helmberg A., Karin M. Immunosuppression by glucocorticoids: inhibition of NF-kappa B activity through induction of I kappa B synthesis. Science. 1995 Oct 13;270(5234):286–290. doi: 10.1126/science.270.5234.286. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Bamberger C. M., Bamberger A. M., de Castro M., Chrousos G. P. Glucocorticoid receptor beta, a potential endogenous inhibitor of glucocorticoid action in humans. J Clin Invest. 1995 Jun;95(6):2435–2441. doi: 10.1172/JCI117943. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Bannister A. J., Kouzarides T. The CBP co-activator is a histone acetyltransferase. Nature. 1996 Dec 19;384(6610):641–643. doi: 10.1038/384641a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Barnes P. J., Karin M. Nuclear factor-kappaB: a pivotal transcription factor in chronic inflammatory diseases. N Engl J Med. 1997 Apr 10;336(15):1066–1071. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199704103361506. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Barrios-Rodiles M., Tiraloche G., Chadee K. Lipopolysaccharide modulates cyclooxygenase-2 transcriptionally and posttranscriptionally in human macrophages independently from endogenous IL-1 beta and TNF-alpha. J Immunol. 1999 Jul 15;163(2):963–969. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Beato M. Gene regulation by steroid hormones. Cell. 1989 Feb 10;56(3):335–344. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(89)90237-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Beato M., Truss M., Chávez S. Control of transcription by steroid hormones. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1996 Apr 30;784:93–123. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1996.tb16231.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Brostjan C., Anrather J., Csizmadia V., Natarajan G., Winkler H. Glucocorticoids inhibit E-selectin expression by targeting NF-kappaB and not ATF/c-Jun. J Immunol. 1997 Apr 15;158(8):3836–3844. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Brostjan C., Anrather J., Csizmadia V., Stroka D., Soares M., Bach F. H., Winkler H. Glucocorticoid-mediated repression of NFkappaB activity in endothelial cells does not involve induction of IkappaBalpha synthesis. J Biol Chem. 1996 Aug 9;271(32):19612–19616. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.32.19612. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Caput D., Beutler B., Hartog K., Thayer R., Brown-Shimer S., Cerami A. Identification of a common nucleotide sequence in the 3'-untranslated region of mRNA molecules specifying inflammatory mediators. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Mar;83(6):1670–1674. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.6.1670. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cato A. C., Wade E. Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory action of glucocorticoids. Bioessays. 1996 May;18(5):371–378. doi: 10.1002/bies.950180507. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cella N., Groner B., Hynes N. E. Characterization of Stat5a and Stat5b homodimers and heterodimers and their association with the glucocortiocoid receptor in mammary cells. Mol Cell Biol. 1998 Apr;18(4):1783–1792. doi: 10.1128/mcb.18.4.1783. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Chakravarti D., LaMorte V. J., Nelson M. C., Nakajima T., Schulman I. G., Juguilon H., Montminy M., Evans R. M. Role of CBP/P300 in nuclear receptor signalling. Nature. 1996 Sep 5;383(6595):99–103. doi: 10.1038/383099a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Charron J., Drouin J. Glucocorticoid inhibition of transcription from episomal proopiomelanocortin gene promoter. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1986 Dec;83(23):8903–8907. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.23.8903. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Chen C. Y., Del Gatto-Konczak F., Wu Z., Karin M. Stabilization of interleukin-2 mRNA by the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase pathway. Science. 1998 Jun 19;280(5371):1945–1949. doi: 10.1126/science.280.5371.1945. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Chen H., Lin R. J., Schiltz R. L., Chakravarti D., Nash A., Nagy L., Privalsky M. L., Nakatani Y., Evans R. M. Nuclear receptor coactivator ACTR is a novel histone acetyltransferase and forms a multimeric activation complex with P/CAF and CBP/p300. Cell. 1997 Aug 8;90(3):569–580. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80516-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Cheung V. G., Morley M., Aguilar F., Massimi A., Kucherlapati R., Childs G. Making and reading microarrays. Nat Genet. 1999 Jan;21(1 Suppl):15–19. doi: 10.1038/4439. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Cidlowski J. A., King K. L., Evans-Storms R. B., Montague J. W., Bortner C. D., Hughes F. M., Jr The biochemistry and molecular biology of glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis in the immune system. Recent Prog Horm Res. 1996;51:457–491. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Cole T. J., Blendy J. A., Monaghan A. P., Krieglstein K., Schmid W., Aguzzi A., Fantuzzi G., Hummler E., Unsicker K., Schütz G. Targeted disruption of the glucocorticoid receptor gene blocks adrenergic chromaffin cell development and severely retards lung maturation. Genes Dev. 1995 Jul 1;9(13):1608–1621. doi: 10.1101/gad.9.13.1608. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Collins S., Caron M. G., Lefkowitz R. J. Beta-adrenergic receptors in hamster smooth muscle cells are transcriptionally regulated by glucocorticoids. J Biol Chem. 1988 Jul 5;263(19):9067–9070. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Colotta F., Re F., Muzio M., Bertini R., Polentarutti N., Sironi M., Giri J. G., Dower S. K., Sims J. E., Mantovani A. Interleukin-1 type II receptor: a decoy target for IL-1 that is regulated by IL-4. Science. 1993 Jul 23;261(5120):472–475. doi: 10.1126/science.8332913. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Crawford E. K., Ensor J. E., Kalvakolanu I., Hasday J. D. The role of 3' poly(A) tail metabolism in tumor necrosis factor-alpha regulation. J Biol Chem. 1997 Aug 22;272(34):21120–21127. doi: 10.1074/jbc.272.34.21120. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Dahlman-Wright K., Baumann H., McEwan I. J., Almlöf T., Wright A. P., Gustafsson J. A., Härd T. Structural characterization of a minimal functional transactivation domain from the human glucocorticoid receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995 Feb 28;92(5):1699–1703. doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.5.1699. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Dahlman-Wright K., Wright A., Gustafsson J. A., Carlstedt-Duke J. Interaction of the glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domain with DNA as a dimer is mediated by a short segment of five amino acids. J Biol Chem. 1991 Feb 15;266(5):3107–3112. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. De Bosscher K., Schmitz M. L., Vanden Berghe W., Plaisance S., Fiers W., Haegeman G. Glucocorticoid-mediated repression of nuclear factor-kappaB-dependent transcription involves direct interference with transactivation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Dec 9;94(25):13504–13509. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.25.13504. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Diamond M. I., Miner J. N., Yoshinaga S. K., Yamamoto K. R. Transcription factor interactions: selectors of positive or negative regulation from a single DNA element. Science. 1990 Sep 14;249(4974):1266–1272. doi: 10.1126/science.2119054. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Drouin J., Sun Y. L., Chamberland M., Gauthier Y., De Léan A., Nemer M., Schmidt T. J. Novel glucocorticoid receptor complex with DNA element of the hormone-repressed POMC gene. EMBO J. 1993 Jan;12(1):145–156. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb05640.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Dunham I., Shimizu N., Roe B. A., Chissoe S., Hunt A. R., Collins J. E., Bruskiewich R., Beare D. M., Clamp M., Smink L. J. The DNA sequence of human chromosome 22. Nature. 1999 Dec 2;402(6761):489–495. doi: 10.1038/990031. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Flower R. J., Rothwell N. J. Lipocortin-1: cellular mechanisms and clinical relevance. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1994 Mar;15(3):71–76. doi: 10.1016/0165-6147(94)90281-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Gerritsen M. E., Williams A. J., Neish A. S., Moore S., Shi Y., Collins T. CREB-binding protein/p300 are transcriptional coactivators of p65. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Apr 1;94(7):2927–2932. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.7.2927. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Giembycz M. A., Lindsay M. A. Pharmacology of the eosinophil. Pharmacol Rev. 1999 Jun;51(2):213–340. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Giguère V., Hollenberg S. M., Rosenfeld M. G., Evans R. M. Functional domains of the human glucocorticoid receptor. Cell. 1986 Aug 29;46(5):645–652. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90339-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Gotoh T., Chowdhury S., Takiguchi M., Mori M. The glucocorticoid-responsive gene cascade. Activation of the rat arginase gene through induction of C/EBPbeta. J Biol Chem. 1997 Feb 7;272(6):3694–3698. doi: 10.1074/jbc.272.6.3694. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Gueydan C., Droogmans L., Chalon P., Huez G., Caput D., Kruys V. Identification of TIAR as a protein binding to the translational regulatory AU-rich element of tumor necrosis factor alpha mRNA. J Biol Chem. 1999 Jan 22;274(4):2322–2326. doi: 10.1074/jbc.274.4.2322. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Guizani L., Perrin-Wolff M., Breard J., Binetruy B., Bertoglio J. Mechanisms in interleukin-2 protection against glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis: regulation of AP-1 and glucocorticoid receptor transcriptional activities. J Interferon Cytokine Res. 1996 Aug;16(8):601–609. doi: 10.1089/jir.1996.16.601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Han J., Brown T., Beutler B. Endotoxin-responsive sequences control cachectin/tumor necrosis factor biosynthesis at the translational level. J Exp Med. 1990 Feb 1;171(2):465–475. doi: 10.1084/jem.171.2.465. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Han J., Huez G., Beutler B. Interactive effects of the tumor necrosis factor promoter and 3'-untranslated regions. J Immunol. 1991 Mar 15;146(6):1843–1848. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Hanson R. W., Reshef L. Regulation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) gene expression. Annu Rev Biochem. 1997;66:581–611. doi: 10.1146/annurev.biochem.66.1.581. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Hauschka P. V., Lian J. B., Cole D. E., Gundberg C. M. Osteocalcin and matrix Gla protein: vitamin K-dependent proteins in bone. Physiol Rev. 1989 Jul;69(3):990–1047. doi: 10.1152/physrev.1989.69.3.990. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Heck S., Bender K., Kullmann M., Göttlicher M., Herrlich P., Cato A. C. I kappaB alpha-independent downregulation of NF-kappaB activity by glucocorticoid receptor. EMBO J. 1997 Aug 1;16(15):4698–4707. doi: 10.1093/emboj/16.15.4698. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Heck S., Kullmann M., Gast A., Ponta H., Rahmsdorf H. J., Herrlich P., Cato A. C. A distinct modulating domain in glucocorticoid receptor monomers in the repression of activity of the transcription factor AP-1. EMBO J. 1994 Sep 1;13(17):4087–4095. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1994.tb06726.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Henics T., Sanfridson A., Hamilton B. J., Nagy E., Rigby W. F. Enhanced stability of interleukin-2 mRNA in MLA 144 cells. Possible role of cytoplasmic AU-rich sequence-binding proteins. J Biol Chem. 1994 Feb 18;269(7):5377–5383. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Hollenberg S. M., Evans R. M. Multiple and cooperative trans-activation domains of the human glucocorticoid receptor. Cell. 1988 Dec 2;55(5):899–906. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(88)90145-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Hollenberg S. M., Weinberger C., Ong E. S., Cerelli G., Oro A., Lebo R., Thompson E. B., Rosenfeld M. G., Evans R. M. Primary structure and expression of a functional human glucocorticoid receptor cDNA. Nature. 1985 Dec 19;318(6047):635–641. doi: 10.1038/318635a0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Huang S., Hershey J. W. Translational initiation factor expression and ribosomal protein gene expression are repressed coordinately but by different mechanisms in murine lymphosarcoma cells treated with glucocorticoids. Mol Cell Biol. 1989 Sep;9(9):3679–3684. doi: 10.1128/mcb.9.9.3679. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Huarte J., Stutz A., O'Connell M. L., Gubler P., Belin D., Darrow A. L., Strickland S., Vassalli J. D. Transient translational silencing by reversible mRNA deadenylation. Cell. 1992 Jun 12;69(6):1021–1030. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(92)90620-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Imai E., Miner J. N., Mitchell J. A., Yamamoto K. R., Granner D. K. Glucocorticoid receptor-cAMP response element-binding protein interaction and the response of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene to glucocorticoids. J Biol Chem. 1993 Mar 15;268(8):5353–5356. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Jacobson A., Peltz S. W. Interrelationships of the pathways of mRNA decay and translation in eukaryotic cells. Annu Rev Biochem. 1996;65:693–739. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.65.070196.003401. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Jantzen H. M., Strähle U., Gloss B., Stewart F., Schmid W., Boshart M., Miksicek R., Schütz G. Cooperativity of glucocorticoid response elements located far upstream of the tyrosine aminotransferase gene. Cell. 1987 Apr 10;49(1):29–38. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90752-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Jonat C., Rahmsdorf H. J., Park K. K., Cato A. C., Gebel S., Ponta H., Herrlich P. Antitumor promotion and antiinflammation: down-modulation of AP-1 (Fos/Jun) activity by glucocorticoid hormone. Cell. 1990 Sep 21;62(6):1189–1204. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90395-u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Kamei Y., Xu L., Heinzel T., Torchia J., Kurokawa R., Gloss B., Lin S. C., Heyman R. A., Rose D. W., Glass C. K. A CBP integrator complex mediates transcriptional activation and AP-1 inhibition by nuclear receptors. Cell. 1996 May 3;85(3):403–414. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81118-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Karin M., Haslinger A., Holtgreve H., Richards R. I., Krauter P., Westphal H. M., Beato M. Characterization of DNA sequences through which cadmium and glucocorticoid hormones induce human metallothionein-IIA gene. Nature. 1984 Apr 5;308(5959):513–519. doi: 10.1038/308513a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Karin M. New twists in gene regulation by glucocorticoid receptor: is DNA binding dispensable? Cell. 1998 May 15;93(4):487–490. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81177-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Kemppainen R. J., Behrend E. N. Dexamethasone rapidly induces a novel ras superfamily member-related gene in AtT-20 cells. J Biol Chem. 1998 Feb 6;273(6):3129–3131. doi: 10.1074/jbc.273.6.3129. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Kern J. A., Lamb R. J., Reed J. C., Daniele R. P., Nowell P. C. Dexamethasone inhibition of interleukin 1 beta production by human monocytes. Posttranscriptional mechanisms. J Clin Invest. 1988 Jan;81(1):237–244. doi: 10.1172/JCI113301. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Kern J. A., Warnock L. J., McCafferty J. D. The 3' untranslated region of IL-1beta regulates protein production. J Immunol. 1997 Feb 1;158(3):1187–1193. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. King K. L., Cidlowski J. A. Cell cycle regulation and apoptosis. Annu Rev Physiol. 1998;60:601–617. doi: 10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. Klauck T. M., Xu X., Mousseau B., Jaken S. Cloning and characterization of a glucocorticoid-induced diacylglycerol kinase. J Biol Chem. 1996 Aug 16;271(33):19781–19788. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.33.19781. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Kleijn M., Scheper G. C., Voorma H. O., Thomas A. A. Regulation of translation initiation factors by signal transduction. Eur J Biochem. 1998 May 1;253(3):531–544. doi: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.1998.2530531.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Knudsen P. J., Dinarello C. A., Strom T. B. Glucocorticoids inhibit transcriptional and post-transcriptional expression of interleukin 1 in U937 cells. J Immunol. 1987 Dec 15;139(12):4129–4134. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Kordula T., Travis J. The role of Stat and C/EBP transcription factors in the synergistic activation of rat serine protease inhibitor-3 gene by interleukin-6 and dexamethasone. Biochem J. 1996 Feb 1;313(Pt 3):1019–1027. doi: 10.1042/bj3131019. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Krane I. M., Spindel E. R., Chin W. W. Thyroid hormone decreases the stability and the poly(A) tract length of rat thyrotropin beta-subunit messenger RNA. Mol Endocrinol. 1991 Apr;5(4):469–475. doi: 10.1210/mend-5-4-469. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Kretz O., Reichardt H. M., Schütz G., Bock R. Corticotropin-releasing hormone expression is the major target for glucocorticoid feedback-control at the hypothalamic level. Brain Res. 1999 Feb 13;818(2):488–491. doi: 10.1016/s0006-8993(98)01277-3. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Kruys V., Marinx O., Shaw G., Deschamps J., Huez G. Translational blockade imposed by cytokine-derived UA-rich sequences. Science. 1989 Aug 25;245(4920):852–855. doi: 10.1126/science.2672333. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Kwok R. P., Lundblad J. R., Chrivia J. C., Richards J. P., Bächinger H. P., Brennan R. G., Roberts S. G., Green M. R., Goodman R. H. Nuclear protein CBP is a coactivator for the transcription factor CREB. Nature. 1994 Jul 21;370(6486):223–226. doi: 10.1038/370223a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. König H., Ponta H., Rahmsdorf H. J., Herrlich P. Interference between pathway-specific transcription factors: glucocorticoids antagonize phorbol ester-induced AP-1 activity without altering AP-1 site occupation in vivo. EMBO J. 1992 Jun;11(6):2241–2246. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1992.tb05283.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Lanza L., Scudeletti M., Puppo F., Bosco O., Peirano L., Filaci G., Fecarotta E., Vidali G., Indiveri F. Prednisone increases apoptosis in in vitro activated human peripheral blood T lymphocytes. Clin Exp Immunol. 1996 Mar;103(3):482–490. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1996.tb08306.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Le Bail O., Schmidt-Ullrich R., Israël A. Promoter analysis of the gene encoding the I kappa B-alpha/MAD3 inhibitor of NF-kappa B: positive regulation by members of the rel/NF-kappa B family. EMBO J. 1993 Dec 15;12(13):5043–5049. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1993.tb06197.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Lee S. W., Tsou A. P., Chan H., Thomas J., Petrie K., Eugui E. M., Allison A. C. Glucocorticoids selectively inhibit the transcription of the interleukin 1 beta gene and decrease the stability of interleukin 1 beta mRNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1988 Feb;85(4):1204–1208. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.4.1204. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Liden J., Delaunay F., Rafter I., Gustafsson J., Okret S. A new function for the C-terminal zinc finger of the glucocorticoid receptor. Repression of RelA transactivation. J Biol Chem. 1997 Aug 22;272(34):21467–21472. doi: 10.1074/jbc.272.34.21467. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Meyer T., Carlstedt-Duke J., Starr D. B. A weak TATA box is a prerequisite for glucocorticoid-dependent repression of the osteocalcin gene. J Biol Chem. 1997 Dec 5;272(49):30709–30714. doi: 10.1074/jbc.272.49.30709. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Meyer T., Gustafsson J. A., Carlstedt-Duke J. Glucocorticoid-dependent transcriptional repression of the osteocalcin gene by competitive binding at the TATA box. DNA Cell Biol. 1997 Aug;16(8):919–927. doi: 10.1089/dna.1997.16.919. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Mitchell J. A., Belvisi M. G., Akarasereenont P., Robbins R. A., Kwon O. J., Croxtall J., Barnes P. J., Vane J. R. Induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 by cytokines in human pulmonary epithelial cells: regulation by dexamethasone. Br J Pharmacol. 1994 Nov;113(3):1008–1014. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1994.tb17093.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Mukaida N., Morita M., Ishikawa Y., Rice N., Okamoto S., Kasahara T., Matsushima K. Novel mechanism of glucocorticoid-mediated gene repression. Nuclear factor-kappa B is target for glucocorticoid-mediated interleukin 8 gene repression. J Biol Chem. 1994 May 6;269(18):13289–13295. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Murphy E. P., Conneely O. M. Neuroendocrine regulation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis by the nurr1/nur77 subfamily of nuclear receptors. Mol Endocrinol. 1997 Jan;11(1):39–47. doi: 10.1210/mend.11.1.9874. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Newton R., Hart L. A., Stevens D. A., Bergmann M., Donnelly L. E., Adcock I. M., Barnes P. J. Effect of dexamethasone on interleukin-1beta-(IL-1beta)-induced nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and kappaB-dependent transcription in epithelial cells. Eur J Biochem. 1998 May 15;254(1):81–89. doi: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.1998.2540081.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Newton R., Kuitert L. M., Bergmann M., Adcock I. M., Barnes P. J. Evidence for involvement of NF-kappaB in the transcriptional control of COX-2 gene expression by IL-1beta. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1997 Aug 8;237(1):28–32. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1997.7064. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Newton R., Kuitert L. M., Slater D. M., Adcock I. M., Barnes P. J. Cytokine induction of cytosolic phospholipase A2 and cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA is suppressed by glucocorticoids in human epithelial cells. Life Sci. 1997;60(1):67–78. doi: 10.1016/s0024-3205(96)00590-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Newton R., Seybold J., Kuitert L. M., Bergmann M., Barnes P. J. Repression of cyclooxygenase-2 and prostaglandin E2 release by dexamethasone occurs by transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms involving loss of polyadenylated mRNA. J Biol Chem. 1998 Nov 27;273(48):32312–32321. doi: 10.1074/jbc.273.48.32312. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Newton R., Seybold J., Liu S. F., Barnes P. J. Alternate COX-2 transcripts are differentially regulated: implications for post-transcriptional control. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1997 May 8;234(1):85–89. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1997.6586. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Nieto M. A., González A., Gambón F., Díaz-Espada F., López-Rivas A. Apoptosis in human thymocytes after treatment with glucocorticoids. Clin Exp Immunol. 1992 May;88(2):341–344. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1992.tb03084.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Northrop J. P., Crabtree G. R., Mattila P. S. Negative regulation of interleukin 2 transcription by the glucocorticoid receptor. J Exp Med. 1992 May 1;175(5):1235–1245. doi: 10.1084/jem.175.5.1235. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Oakley R. H., Jewell C. M., Yudt M. R., Bofetiado D. M., Cidlowski J. A. The dominant negative activity of the human glucocorticoid receptor beta isoform. Specificity and mechanisms of action. J Biol Chem. 1999 Sep 24;274(39):27857–27866. doi: 10.1074/jbc.274.39.27857. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Ogryzko V. V., Schiltz R. L., Russanova V., Howard B. H., Nakatani Y. The transcriptional coactivators p300 and CBP are histone acetyltransferases. Cell. 1996 Nov 29;87(5):953–959. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)82001-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Ohtsuka T., Kubota A., Hirano T., Watanabe K., Yoshida H., Tsurufuji M., Iizuka Y., Konishi K., Tsurufuji S. Glucocorticoid-mediated gene suppression of rat cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant CINC/gro, a member of the interleukin-8 family, through impairment of NF-kappa B activation. J Biol Chem. 1996 Jan 19;271(3):1651–1659. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.3.1651. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Pearce D., Matsui W., Miner J. N., Yamamoto K. R. Glucocorticoid receptor transcriptional activity determined by spacing of receptor and nonreceptor DNA sites. J Biol Chem. 1998 Nov 13;273(46):30081–30085. doi: 10.1074/jbc.273.46.30081. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Pearce D., Yamamoto K. R. Mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptor activities distinguished by nonreceptor factors at a composite response element. Science. 1993 Feb 19;259(5098):1161–1165. doi: 10.1126/science.8382376. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Peppel K., Vinci J. M., Baglioni C. The AU-rich sequences in the 3' untranslated region mediate the increased turnover of interferon mRNA induced by glucocorticoids. J Exp Med. 1991 Feb 1;173(2):349–355. doi: 10.1084/jem.173.2.349. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Philips A., Maira M., Mullick A., Chamberland M., Lesage S., Hugo P., Drouin J. Antagonism between Nur77 and glucocorticoid receptor for control of transcription. Mol Cell Biol. 1997 Oct;17(10):5952–5959. doi: 10.1128/mcb.17.10.5952. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Poon M., Liu B., Taubman M. B. Identification of a novel dexamethasone-sensitive RNA-destabilizing region on rat monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 mRNA. Mol Cell Biol. 1999 Oct;19(10):6471–6478. doi: 10.1128/mcb.19.10.6471. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Rajagopalan L. E., Burkholder J. K., Turner J., Culp J., Yang N. S., Malter J. S. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor mRNA stabilization enhances transgenic expression in normal cells and tissues. Blood. 1995 Oct 1;86(7):2551–2558. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Rajagopalan L. E., Malter J. S. Modulation of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor mRNA stability in vitro by the adenosine-uridine binding factor. J Biol Chem. 1994 Sep 30;269(39):23882–23888. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Ramdas J., Harmon J. M. Glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis and regulation of NF-kappaB activity in human leukemic T cells. Endocrinology. 1998 Sep;139(9):3813–3821. doi: 10.1210/endo.139.9.6180. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Ray A., Prefontaine K. E. Physical association and functional antagonism between the p65 subunit of transcription factor NF-kappa B and the glucocorticoid receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Jan 18;91(2):752–756. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.2.752. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Ray K. P., Farrow S., Daly M., Talabot F., Searle N. Induction of the E-selectin promoter by interleukin 1 and tumour necrosis factor alpha, and inhibition by glucocorticoids. Biochem J. 1997 Dec 1;328(Pt 2):707–715. doi: 10.1042/bj3280707. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Reichardt H. M., Kaestner K. H., Tuckermann J., Kretz O., Wessely O., Bock R., Gass P., Schmid W., Herrlich P., Angel P. DNA binding of the glucocorticoid receptor is not essential for survival. Cell. 1998 May 15;93(4):531–541. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81183-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Reichardt H. M., Schütz G. Glucocorticoid signalling--multiple variations of a common theme. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1998 Nov 25;146(1-2):1–6. doi: 10.1016/s0303-7207(98)00208-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Reisman D., Thompson E. A. Glucocorticoid regulation of cyclin D3 gene transcription and mRNA stability in lymphoid cells. Mol Endocrinol. 1995 Nov;9(11):1500–1509. doi: 10.1210/mend.9.11.8584027. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Renkawitz R., Schütz G., von der Ahe D., Beato M. Sequences in the promoter region of the chicken lysozyme gene required for steroid regulation and receptor binding. Cell. 1984 Jun;37(2):503–510. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(84)90380-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  101. Rhoads R. E. Signal transduction pathways that regulate eukaryotic protein synthesis. J Biol Chem. 1999 Oct 22;274(43):30337–30340. doi: 10.1074/jbc.274.43.30337. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  102. Riegel A. T., Lu Y., Remenick J., Wolford R. G., Berard D. S., Hager G. L. Proopiomelanocortin gene promoter elements required for constitutive and glucocorticoid-repressed transcription. Mol Endocrinol. 1991 Dec;5(12):1973–1982. doi: 10.1210/mend-5-12-1973. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  103. Ristimäki A., Garfinkel S., Wessendorf J., Maciag T., Hla T. Induction of cyclooxygenase-2 by interleukin-1 alpha. Evidence for post-transcriptional regulation. J Biol Chem. 1994 Apr 22;269(16):11769–11775. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  104. Ristimäki A., Narko K., Hla T. Down-regulation of cytokine-induced cyclo-oxygenase-2 transcript isoforms by dexamethasone: evidence for post-transcriptional regulation. Biochem J. 1996 Aug 15;318(Pt 1):325–331. doi: 10.1042/bj3180325. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  105. Sakai D. D., Helms S., Carlstedt-Duke J., Gustafsson J. A., Rottman F. M., Yamamoto K. R. Hormone-mediated repression: a negative glucocorticoid response element from the bovine prolactin gene. Genes Dev. 1988 Sep;2(9):1144–1154. doi: 10.1101/gad.2.9.1144. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  106. Scheinman R. I., Cogswell P. C., Lofquist A. K., Baldwin A. S., Jr Role of transcriptional activation of I kappa B alpha in mediation of immunosuppression by glucocorticoids. Science. 1995 Oct 13;270(5234):283–286. doi: 10.1126/science.270.5234.283. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  107. Scheinman R. I., Gualberto A., Jewell C. M., Cidlowski J. A., Baldwin A. S., Jr Characterization of mechanisms involved in transrepression of NF-kappa B by activated glucocorticoid receptors. Mol Cell Biol. 1995 Feb;15(2):943–953. doi: 10.1128/mcb.15.2.943. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  108. Schmidt M., Pauels H. G., Lügering N., Lügering A., Domschke W., Kucharzik T. Glucocorticoids induce apoptosis in human monocytes: potential role of IL-1 beta. J Immunol. 1999 Sep 15;163(6):3484–3490. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  109. Schüle R., Muller M., Kaltschmidt C., Renkawitz R. Many transcription factors interact synergistically with steroid receptors. Science. 1988 Dec 9;242(4884):1418–1420. doi: 10.1126/science.3201230. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  110. Schüle R., Muller M., Otsuka-Murakami H., Renkawitz R. Cooperativity of the glucocorticoid receptor and the CACCC-box binding factor. Nature. 1988 Mar 3;332(6159):87–90. doi: 10.1038/332087a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  111. Schüle R., Rangarajan P., Kliewer S., Ransone L. J., Bolado J., Yang N., Verma I. M., Evans R. M. Functional antagonism between oncoprotein c-Jun and the glucocorticoid receptor. Cell. 1990 Sep 21;62(6):1217–1226. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90397-w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  112. Shaw G., Kamen R. A conserved AU sequence from the 3' untranslated region of GM-CSF mRNA mediates selective mRNA degradation. Cell. 1986 Aug 29;46(5):659–667. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90341-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  113. Sheppard K. A., Phelps K. M., Williams A. J., Thanos D., Glass C. K., Rosenfeld M. G., Gerritsen M. E., Collins T. Nuclear integration of glucocorticoid receptor and nuclear factor-kappaB signaling by CREB-binding protein and steroid receptor coactivator-1. J Biol Chem. 1998 Nov 6;273(45):29291–29294. doi: 10.1074/jbc.273.45.29291. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  114. Shiama N. The p300/CBP family: integrating signals with transcription factors and chromatin. Trends Cell Biol. 1997 Jun;7(6):230–236. doi: 10.1016/S0962-8924(97)01048-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  115. Struhl K. Histone acetylation and transcriptional regulatory mechanisms. Genes Dev. 1998 Mar 1;12(5):599–606. doi: 10.1101/gad.12.5.599. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  116. Strähle U., Klock G., Schütz G. A DNA sequence of 15 base pairs is sufficient to mediate both glucocorticoid and progesterone induction of gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Nov;84(22):7871–7875. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.22.7871. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  117. Strähle U., Schmid W., Schütz G. Synergistic action of the glucocorticoid receptor with transcription factors. EMBO J. 1988 Nov;7(11):3389–3395. doi: 10.1002/j.1460-2075.1988.tb03212.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  118. Strömstedt P. E., Poellinger L., Gustafsson J. A., Carlstedt-Duke J. The glucocorticoid receptor binds to a sequence overlapping the TATA box of the human osteocalcin promoter: a potential mechanism for negative regulation. Mol Cell Biol. 1991 Jun;11(6):3379–3383. doi: 10.1128/mcb.11.6.3379. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  119. Stöcklin E., Wissler M., Gouilleux F., Groner B. Functional interactions between Stat5 and the glucocorticoid receptor. Nature. 1996 Oct 24;383(6602):726–728. doi: 10.1038/383726a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  120. Swantek J. L., Cobb M. H., Geppert T. D. Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK/SAPK) is required for lipopolysaccharide stimulation of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) translation: glucocorticoids inhibit TNF-alpha translation by blocking JNK/SAPK. Mol Cell Biol. 1997 Nov;17(11):6274–6282. doi: 10.1128/mcb.17.11.6274. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  121. Swope D. L., Mueller C. L., Chrivia J. C. CREB-binding protein activates transcription through multiple domains. J Biol Chem. 1996 Nov 8;271(45):28138–28145. doi: 10.1074/jbc.271.45.28138. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  122. Taylor I. K., Shaw R. J. The mechanism of action of corticosteroids in asthma. Respir Med. 1993 May;87(4):261–277. doi: 10.1016/0954-6111(93)90022-r. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  123. Tobler A., Meier R., Seitz M., Dewald B., Baggiolini M., Fey M. F. Glucocorticoids downregulate gene expression of GM-CSF, NAP-1/IL-8, and IL-6, but not of M-CSF in human fibroblasts. Blood. 1992 Jan 1;79(1):45–51. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  124. Tsai C. C., Kao H. Y., Yao T. P., McKeown M., Evans R. M. SMRTER, a Drosophila nuclear receptor coregulator, reveals that EcR-mediated repression is critical for development. Mol Cell. 1999 Aug;4(2):175–186. doi: 10.1016/s1097-2765(00)80365-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  125. Vanden Berghe W., Francesconi E., De Bosscher K., Resche-Rigon M., Haegeman G. Dissociated glucocorticoids with anti-inflammatory potential repress interleukin-6 gene expression by a nuclear factor-kappaB-dependent mechanism. Mol Pharmacol. 1999 Oct;56(4):797–806. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  126. Vayssière B. M., Dupont S., Choquart A., Petit F., Garcia T., Marchandeau C., Gronemeyer H., Resche-Rigon M. Synthetic glucocorticoids that dissociate transactivation and AP-1 transrepression exhibit antiinflammatory activity in vivo. Mol Endocrinol. 1997 Aug;11(9):1245–1255. doi: 10.1210/mend.11.9.9979. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  127. Walker G., Pfeilschifter J., Kunz D. Mechanisms of suppression of inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in interferon (IFN)-gamma-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells by dexamethasone. Evidence for glucocorticoid-induced degradation of iNOS protein by calpain as a key step in post-transcriptional regulation. J Biol Chem. 1997 Jun 27;272(26):16679–16687. doi: 10.1074/jbc.272.26.16679. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  128. Webster M. K., Goya L., Ge Y., Maiyar A. C., Firestone G. L. Characterization of sgk, a novel member of the serine/threonine protein kinase gene family which is transcriptionally induced by glucocorticoids and serum. Mol Cell Biol. 1993 Apr;13(4):2031–2040. doi: 10.1128/mcb.13.4.2031. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  129. Winzen R., Kracht M., Ritter B., Wilhelm A., Chen C. Y., Shyu A. B., Müller M., Gaestel M., Resch K., Holtmann H. The p38 MAP kinase pathway signals for cytokine-induced mRNA stabilization via MAP kinase-activated protein kinase 2 and an AU-rich region-targeted mechanism. EMBO J. 1999 Sep 15;18(18):4969–4980. doi: 10.1093/emboj/18.18.4969. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  130. Wyllie A. H., Morris R. G., Smith A. L., Dunlop D. Chromatin cleavage in apoptosis: association with condensed chromatin morphology and dependence on macromolecular synthesis. J Pathol. 1984 Jan;142(1):67–77. doi: 10.1002/path.1711420112. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  131. Yang-Yen H. F., Chambard J. C., Sun Y. L., Smeal T., Schmidt T. J., Drouin J., Karin M. Transcriptional interference between c-Jun and the glucocorticoid receptor: mutual inhibition of DNA binding due to direct protein-protein interaction. Cell. 1990 Sep 21;62(6):1205–1215. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(90)90396-v. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  132. Yang L., Yang Y. C. Regulation of interleukin (IL)-11 gene expression in IL-1 induced primate bone marrow stromal cells. J Biol Chem. 1994 Dec 30;269(52):32732–32739. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  133. Yang X. J., Ogryzko V. V., Nishikawa J., Howard B. H., Nakatani Y. A p300/CBP-associated factor that competes with the adenoviral oncoprotein E1A. Nature. 1996 Jul 25;382(6589):319–324. doi: 10.1038/382319a0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  134. Yao X. L., Cowan M. J., Gladwin M. T., Lawrence M. M., Angus C. W., Shelhamer J. H. Dexamethasone alters arachidonate release from human epithelial cells by induction of p11 protein synthesis and inhibition of phospholipase A2 activity. J Biol Chem. 1999 Jun 11;274(24):17202–17208. doi: 10.1074/jbc.274.24.17202. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Thorax are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES