Table 1.

Clinical features of onchocerciasis

Ocular manifestations	Non-ocular manifestations
Anterior segment	Skin disease
Live microfilariae in anterior chamber (AC)	Pruritus: often severe and unrelenting
Punctate keratitis, leading onto sclerosing keratitis	Nodules: subcutaneous, painless, typically found around bony prominences (iliac crest, greater trochanters, ribs, knees, coccyx, and skull)
Early uveitis, leading onto chronic uveitis	Severe, disfiguring skin disease: may lead to social stigmatisation, psychological and sleep disorders
Secondary glaucoma
Posterior segment	Others
Choroidoretinitis, leading onto choroidoretinal atrophy or optic nerve atrophy	Lymphatic: lymphadenopathy, hanging groin
Acute optic neuritis, leading onto optic atrophy	Unknown associations: hyposexual dwarfism, higher prevalence of epilepsy
Others
Night blindness
Visual field loss and constriction
Irreversible blindness, from any of the above