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Measurements of forces applied by cilia and flagella
| Specimen type | Specimen treatment | Measurement method | Measured force (pN) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Human sperm | Excised | Optic tweezers | 44 ± 20 | (52) |
| Cilium, Mytilus edulis | Excised and constrained | Glass needles | 500–3000 | (38) |
| Bull sperm | Demembranated | Glass needles | 250 ± 90 | (50) |
| Sand dollar sperm | Demembranated | Glass needles | 100–250 | (53) |
| Sea-urchin sperm axoneme | Demembranated | AFM | Up to 500 | (54) |
| Cilium, Rana ridibunda | Intact | AFM | 210 | This study |
