Table 2.

Key features of a precautionary appraisal process (after Gee et al, 2001)

Precaution ‘broadens out' the inputs to appraisal beyond the scope that is typical in conventional regulatory risk assessment, in order to provide for the following points.

(i) Independence from vested institutional, disciplinary, economic and political interests

(ii) Examination of a greater range of uncertainties, sensitivities and possible scenarios

(iii) Deliberate search for ‘blind spots', gaps in knowledge and divergent scientific views

(iv) Attention to proxies for possible harm, i.e. mobility, bioaccumulation and persistence

(v) Contemplation of full life cycles and resource chains as they occur in the real world

(vi) Consideration of indirect effects, such as additivity, synergy and accumulation

(vii) Inclusion of industrial trends, institutional behaviour and issues of non-compliance

(viii) Explicit discussion over appropriate burdens of proof, persuasion, evidence and analysis

(ix) Comparison of a series of technology and policy options and potential substitutes

(x) Deliberation over justifications and possible wider benefits, as well as risks and costs

(xi) Drawing on relevant knowledge and experience arising beyond specialist disciplines

(xii) Engagement with the values and interests of all stakeholders who stand to be affected

(xiii) General citizen participation in order to provide independent validation of framing

(xiv) A shift from theoretical modelling towards systematic monitoring and surveillance

(xv) A greater priority on targeted scientific research to address unresolved questions

(xvi) Initiation at the earliest stages ‘upstream' in an innovation, strategy or policy process

(xvii) Emphasis on strategic qualities such as reversibility, flexibility, diversity and resilience