Table 2.
Cumulative updated caffeinated coffee consumption and covariate-adjusted hazard ratio of colorectal, colon, and rectal cancers*
| Frequency of coffee consumption† |
HR for 1 additional cup of coffee/day (95% CI) |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cancer | Never | 0.5 cup/day | 1 cup/day | 2–3 cups/day | 4–5 cups/day | >5 cups/day | Ptrend‡ | |
| Colorectal cancer | ||||||||
| HR, women (95% CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | 1.11 (0.86 to 1.43) |
0.99 (0.77 to 1.27) |
1.08 (0.88 to 1.34) |
0.95 (0.73 to 1.23) |
0.94 (0.63 to 1.40) |
.52 | 0.99 (0.95 to 1.04) |
| HR, men (95%CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | 1.00 (0.77 to 1.28) |
0.98 (0.75 to 1.28) |
0.93 (0.73 to 1.19) |
1.04 (0.74 to 1.48) |
1.09 (0.55 to 2.17) |
.99 | 1.00 (0.94 to 1.06) |
| HR, pooled (95% CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | 1.05 (0.88 to 1.26) |
0.99 (0.82 to 1.18) |
1.02 (0.87 to 1.19) |
0.98 (0.80 to 1.21) |
0.98 (0.69 to 1.38) |
.60 | 0.99 (0.96 to 1.03) |
| No. cases | 259 | 243 | 228 | 497 | 164 | 40 | 1431 | |
| No. person-years of follow-up | 367 357 | 283 616 | 297 672 | 678 849 | 262 085 | 76 534 | 1 966 113 | |
| Colon cancer | ||||||||
| HR, women (95% CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | 1.03 (0.78 to 1.36) |
0.92 (0.70 to 1.20) |
1.02 (0.82 to 1.28) |
0.85 (0.64 to 1.12) |
0.85 (0.55 to 1.32) |
.26 | 0.98 (0.94 to 1.03) |
| HR, men (95% CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | 1.09 (0.83 to 1.45) |
1.04 (0.77 to 1.41) |
1.01 (0.77 to 1.33) |
0.91 (0.59 to 1.36) |
1.39 (0.69 to 2.78) |
.88 | 0.99 (0.92 to 1.06) |
| HR, pooled (95% CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | 1.06 (0.87 to 1.29) |
0.97 (0.79 to 1.19) |
1.02 (0.85 to 1.21) |
0.86 (0.68 to 1.09) |
0.98 (0.68 to 1.41) |
.31 | 0.98 (0.95 to 1.02) |
| No. of cases | 214 | 200 | 185 | 413 | 123 | 35 | 1170 | |
| No. person-years of follow-up | 367 423 | 283 665 | 297 738 | 678 969 | 262 125 | 76 542 | 1 966 462 | |
| Rectal cancer | ||||||||
| HR, women (95% CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | 1.71 (0.88 to 3.34) |
1.58 (0.82 to 3.06) |
1.58 (0.87 to 2.88) |
1.80 (0.94 to 3.44) |
.29 | 1.05 (0.95 to 1.17) |
|
| HR, men (95% CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | 0.63 (0.35 to 1.15) |
0.78 (0.43 to 1.44) |
0.65 (0.37 to 1.14) |
1.33 (0.69 to 2.56) |
.81 | 1.02 (0.89 to 1.18) |
|
| HR, pooled (95% CI)§ | 1.00 (referent) | ∥ | 1.08 (0.69 to 1.69) |
∥ | 1.55 (0.97 to 2.45) |
.31 | 1.04 (0.96 to 1.13) |
|
| No. of cases | 45 | 43 | 43 | 84 | 45 | 260 | ||
| No. person-years of follow-up | 367 647 | 283 917 | 297 968 | 679 527 | 338 867 | 1 967 926 | ||
*
HR = hazard ratio; CI = confidence interval.
†
The highest frequency of consumption category for rectal cancer is ≥4 cups/day.
‡
Wald test for trend; two-sided
§
Adjusted for age, family history of colorectal cancer, history of sigmoidoscopy, height, body mass index, pack-years of smoking, physical activity, aspirin use, vitamin supplement intake, alcohol consumption, red meat consumption, total caloric intake, and, among women in addition for menopausal status, postmenopausal hormone use.
∥
Data were not combined because of statistically significant heterogeneity (at P <.05) in HR estimates from women and men.