Fig. 5.

Trx and GSH pathways interacting with ATO. Trx system including NADPH, TrxR, and Trx coupled with peroxiredoxins and the GSH system composed of NADPH, GR, GSH coupled with Grxs, GPxs, GSTs are the two main electron donor systems that mediate the cellular activity including DNA synthesis, protection against oxidative stress, and thus control cellular proliferation, viability, and apoptosis. The combination inhibition of ATO and BSO will lead to the disruption on both systems and block electron supply for DNA synthesis and give a rise of oxidative stress and thus induce cells into apoptosis.