Fig. 1.

Reaction times (bars, left axis) and error rates (bullets, right axis) for the Chinese–English bilinguals (B and E) and the two monolingual control groups [English (A and D) and Chinese (C and F)]. (A–C) Reading experiment. (D–F) Listening experiment. Conditions in which the target was semantically related/unrelated are labeled S+/S−, respectively. Conditions in which one Chinese character was repeated/not repeated are labeled R+/R−, respectively. Stars indicate significant differences (P < 0.05). Error bars depict standard deviation in all cases.