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Bias magnification and inflation. The ecologic bias (be - bw) equals the individual-level bias (bc - bw) – due to confounding by group and effect modification of the risk difference by group – multiplied by the magnification factor M, assuming no other sources of ecologic bias. The ecologic bias also equals the sum of the individual-level bias due to ignoring groups and the bias caused by aggregation. The latter is measured by F, the inflation factor, equal to M - 1.
