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. 2007 Oct;97(10):1794–1802. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.095521

TABLE 1—

Indicators of Empowerment and Intimate Partner Violence: Intervention With Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity Study, Limpopo Province, South Africa, September 2001 to March 2005

Indicators Survey Questions Hypothesized Effect From Intervention
Empowerment indicators
Power withina
    Self-confidence 2 questions (positive response to 1 or both of the questions) Increase
    If you were at a community meeting, how confident are you that you could raise your opinion in public? (very confident)
    Neighbors often share similar problems—how confident do you feel about offering advice to your neighbor? (very confident)
    Financial confidence 2 questions (positive response to 1 or both of the questions) Increase
    In the event of a crisis (e.g., house fire) how confident are you that you alone could raise enough money to feed your family for 4 weeks? (very confident)
    Is your ability to survive this kind of crisis better, the same, or worse than it was 2 years ago? (better)
    Challenges gender norms Series of 6 statements accepting traditional gender norms, e.g., “A woman should do most of the household chores, even if the husband is not working” (disagree with all 6) Increase
Power toa Increase
    Autonomy in decisionmaking Series of 10 questions about household decisions, e.g., making small, medium, or large purchases, taking children to the clinic, visiting family or friends: (does not need partner’s permission for 5 of 10)
    Perceived contribution to household 1 question Increase
    How does your partner view the money that you bring into the household? (yours is the most important contribution)
    Household communication 3 questions (positive response to any of the questions) Increase
    In the past year, have you communicated with anyone about sex or sexuality?

  1. Your partner?

  2. Your children?

  3. Other household members?
    Partner relationship 2 questions about relationship with intimate partner over the past year (positive response to 1 or both of the questions) Increase
    Has he encouraged you to participate in something outside the home that was only for your benefit?
    Has he asked your advice about a difficult issue or decision?
Power with a Increase
    Social group membership Series of 18 questions about participation in a range of formal and informal social groups, e.g., burial society, village health committee (number of such groups)
    Collective action 1 question Increase
    In the past 2 years, have you participated in a meeting, march, or rally about HIV/AIDS awareness? (positive response to question)
Intimate partner violence indicators
Primary outcome Decrease
    Past year experience of physical or sexual violence 2 questions on physical violence and 2 questions on sexual violence(positive response to any of the questions)
             In the past 12 months, has your partner ever

  1. Pushed you or shoved you?

  2. Hit you with his fist or something else that could hurt you?

  3. Physically forced you to have sex when you did not want to?

  4. Have you had sex when you did not want to, because you were afraid of what he would do if you refused?
Secondary outcomes Decrease
    Past year experience of controlling behavior 4 questions (positive response to any of the questions)
    In the past 12 months has your partner ever

  1. Kept you from seeing your friends?

  2. Insisted on knowing where you are at all times?

  3. Wanted you to ask permission before seeking healthcare for yourself?

  4. Insulted or humiliated you in front of other people?
Progressive attitudes to IPV 8 statements condoning physical and sexual IPV (disagree with all 8) Increase

Note. IPV = intimate partner violence.

aIn an approach to recognizing an interplay between gaining internal skills and overcoming external barriers, we drew upon a conceptual framework that included “power within” (internal qualities, such as self-confidence or critical thinking skills, that contribute to individual agency); “power to” (the creation of new opportunities without domination; factors such as the ability to make independent decisions that determine and demonstrate such agency) and “power with” (communal dimensions, such as group solidarity or collective action, which acknowledge that positive change may often be effected through individuals acting together, rather than alone).