Table 1.
Prospective cohort studies evaluating antioxidants and their association with the primary prevention of early age-related macular degeneration (AMD)
| Author, year | Study | Follow-up | Population (sample size, age (years)) | Definition of AMD | No of cases | Antioxidants investigated | Confounders adjusted for | Study quality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Christen, 1999w5 | Physician health study 1 | 12.5 person years | Male doctors, USA (21 120, 40-84) | Drusen or pigment change, plus visual acuity ≤20/30 | 279 | Brief questionnaire: supplements | Age, smoking, treatment assignment group, body mass index, exercise, diabetes, family history of acute myocardial infarct, alcohol intake | Moderate |
| *Cho, 2001w6 | Nurses health study and health professional follow-up study | 8-10 year incidence | Health professionals, USA (104 208, ≥50) | Drusen or pigment change, plus visual acuity ≤20/30 | 195 | Validated food frequency questionnaire: zinc | Age, smoking, energy, body mass index, exercise, lutein and zeaxanthin intake, 2 yr time period, hormone replacement therapy, blood pressure, cholesterol, alcohol intake | Moderate |
| Van Leeuwen, 2005w1 | Rotterdam eye study | 8 year incidence | Population based, Netherlands (4170, ≥55) | International classification | 518 | Validated food frequency questionnaire: lutein and zeaxanthin, vitamin E, vitamin C, vitamin A, zinc, β carotene, β cryptoxanthin, lycopene, α carotene | Age, smoking, sex, energy, fat intake, body mass index, blood pressure, cholesterol, alcohol | High |
| †Flood, 2002w2 | Blue Mountain eye study | 5 year incidence | Population based, Australia (1989, ≥49) | Wisconsin age related maculopathy grading system | 192 | Validated food frequency questionnaire: lutein and zeaxanthin, vitamin C, vitamin A, zinc, β carotene, β cryptoxanthin, lycopene, α carotene, supplements | Age, smoking, sex, energy, family history of AMD | High |
| Moeller, 2006w7 | Carotenoid in age-related eye disease study | 6 year prevalence | Women's Health Initiative: healthy volunteers (1787, 50-79) women only | AREDS modified | 322 | Validated food frequency questionnaire: lutein and zeaxanthin, fruit and vegetables | Age, smoking, energy, diabetes, family history of AMD, iris colour, cardiovascular disease, hormone replacement therapy | Moderate |
| Cho, 2004*w3 | Nurses health study and health professional follow-up study | 12-18 year incidence | Health professionals (118 428, ≥50) | Drusen or pigment change, plus visual acuity ≤20/30 | 464 | Validated food frequency questionnaire: lutein and zeaxanthin, vitamin E, vitamin C, vitamin A, β carotene, β cryptoxanthin, lycopene, α carotene, fruit and vegetables, supplements | Age, smoking, energy, body mass index, exercise, fish intake, hormone replacement therapy, blood pressure, alcohol intake | Moderate |
| Van den Langenberg, 1998w8 | Beaver Dam eye study | 5 year incidence | Population based, USA (1709, 43-84) | Wisconsin age related maculopathy grading system | 103 | Validated food frequency questionnaire: lutein and zeaxanthin, vitamin E, C, β carotene, β cryptoxanthin, zinc, lycopene, α carotene, fruit and vegetables, supplements | Age, smoking, sex, energy, body mass index, exercise, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, beer intake | High |
| Flood, 2006†w4 | Blue Mountain eye study | 10 year incidence | Population based, Australia (2083, ≥49) | Wisconsin age related maculopathy grading system | 220 | Validated food frequency questionnaire: lutein and zeaxanthin | Age, smoking, sex, energy | Moderate |
| Chong, 2006w9 | Melbourne collaborative cohort study | 10 year prevalence | Volunteers for study (3605, ≥60) | International classification | 1008 | Validated food frequency questionnaire: lutein and zeaxanthin | Age, smoking, sex, energy, ethnicity, supplement use, total fat | Not applicable (abstract) |
*The three studies that evaluated antioxidant intake and its associations with late AMD.
†Duplicate publication: Flood 2006 used in lutein and zeaxanthin pooled results instead of Flood 2002.