Table 1.

Nonclimate stressors affecting smallholder and subsistence agriculture

Stressors	Source
Population increase driving fragmentation of landholding.	17
Environmental degradation caused by population, poverty and ill-defined and insecure property rights, including widespread soil degradation.	8, 18
Regionalized and globalized markets, and regulatory regimes, increasingly concerned with issues of food quality and food safety.	19
Market failures in product marketing and input supply, following withdrawal of governments, leading to decreased market access for smallholders.	20
Protectionist agricultural policies in developed countries, declines and unpredictability in the world prices of many major agricultural commodities, macro-economic shocks.	21
HIV/AIDS pandemic, reducing household labor supply, eroding household assets, disrupting knowledge transmission and agricultural services.	22
Threats of panzootics (e.g., avian influenza) attacking livelihoods and constraining trade.	23
State fragility and armed conflict in some regions.	24