Table 3.
Summary of the pooled adjusted results from the five cohort studies: height, schooling, income/assets, offspring birthweight, body-mass index, blood pressure, and glucose concentration¶
|
Males |
Females |
Both sexes |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pooled estimate (range) | p* | Pooled estimate (range) | p* | Pooled estimate | p* | |
| Height (cm) | ||||||
| Maternal height† (cm) | 0·47 (0·16 to 0·59) | <0·0001 | 0·51 (0·46 to 0·54) | <0·0001 | 0·50 | <0·0001 |
| Birthweight (kg) | 3·25 (2·72 to 4·19) | <0·0001 | 3·25 (3·06 to 3·64) | <0·0001 | 3·25 | <0·0001 |
| IUGR (yes/no) | −2·17 (−3·32 to −1·44) | <0·0001 | −2·32 (−2·60 to −1·78) | <0·0001 | −2·24 | <0·0001 |
| WAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 2·75 (1·83 to 2·86) | <0·0001 | 2·63 (1·73 to 2·81) | <0·0001 | 2·69 | <0·0001 |
| HAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 3·26 (3·13 to 3·31) | <0·0001 | 3·22 (2·92 to 3·50) | <0·0001 | 3·24 | <0·0001 |
| Schooling (years) | ||||||
| BAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·20 (−1·39 to 0·51) | 0·03 | 0·17 (−0·39 to 0·40) | 0·08 | 0·18 | 0·06 |
| Maternal height† (cm) | 0·02 (0·00 to 0·07) | 0·04 | 0·02 (0·01 to 0·06) | <0·0001 | 0·02 | <0·0001 |
| Birthweight (kg) | 0·39 (0·16 to 0·48) | <0·0001 | 0·25 (−0·06 to 0·68) | <0·0001 | 0·30 | <0·0001 |
| IUGR (yes/no) | −0·18 (−0·39 to 0·16) | 0·10 | −0·25 (−0·52 to 0·28) | 0·003 | −0·23 | 0·001 |
| WAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·51 (0·21 to 0·59) | <0·0001 | 0·52 (−0·02 to 0·57) | <0·0001 | 0·52 | <0·0001 |
| HAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·48 (0·32 to 0·51) | <0·0001 | 0·53 (0·03 to 0·56) | <0·0001 | 0·50 | <0·0001 |
| BAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·09 (−0·57 to 0·37) | 0·51 | 0·16 (−0·03 to 0·33) | <0·0001 | 0·16 | 0·02 |
| Birthweight of the first offspring‡(g) | ||||||
| Maternal height† (cm) | 7·0 (2·5 to 11·9) | 0·02 | ||||
| Birthweight (kg) | 208·0 (190 to 294) | <0·0001 | ||||
| IUGR (yes/no) | −126·7(−174 to −44) | 0·002 | ||||
| WAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 74·7 (31 to 94) | <0·0001 | ||||
| HAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 78·5 (43 to 98) | <0·0001 | ||||
| BAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 14·5 (−2 to 39) | 0·37 | ||||
| Body-mass index (kg/m2) | ||||||
| Maternal height† (cm) | 0·01 (−0·01 to 0·05) | 0·15 | 0·01 (0·00 to 0·02) | 0·39 | 0·01 | 0·09 |
| Birthweight (kg) | 0·71 (0·01 to 1·02) | <0·0001 | 1·13 (0·91 to 2·21) | <0·0001 | 0·87 | <0·0001 |
| IUGR (yes/no) | −0·50 (−0·82 to 0·03) | <0·0001 | −0·76 (−1·42 to −0·38) | <0·0001 | −0·60 | <0·0001 |
| WAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·90 (0·39 to 1·26) | <0·0001 | 0·95 (0·66 to 1·35) | <0·0001 | 0·92 | <0·0001 |
| HAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·42 (0·06 to 0·63) | <0·0001 | 0·38 (0·13 to 0·84) | <0·0001 | 0·40 | <0·0001 |
| BAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·74 (0·33 to 1·13) | <0·0001 | 0·93 (0·68 to 1·14) | <0·0001 | 0·81 | <0·0001 |
| Glucose concentration‡(log/mmol/L) | ||||||
| Maternal height† (cm) | 0·067 (0·033 to 0·182) | 0·11 | −0·011 (−0·113 to 0·082) | 0·81 | 0·031 | 0·31 |
| Adjusted maternal height§ (cm) | 0·034 (−0·019 to 0·184) | 0·45 | 0·005 (−0·109 to 0·104) | 0·92 | 0·020 | 0·56 |
| Birthweight (kg) | −0·001 (−0·018 to 0·004) | 0·84 | −0·009 (−0·012 to −0·005) | 0·08 | −0·004 | 0·18 |
| Adjusted birthweight§ (kg) | −0·005 (−0·028 to−0·002) | 0·28 | −0·013 (−0·024 to −0·010) | 0·01 | −0·009 | 0·01 |
| IUGR (yes/no) | −0·006 (−0·016 to −0·003) | 0·30 | −0·005 (−0·028 to 0·006) | 0·36 | −0·005 | 0·17 |
| Adjusted IUGR§ (yes/no) | −0·004 (−0·020 to 0·000) | 0·43 | −0·003 (−0·020 to 0·014) | 0·65 | −0·004 | 0·38 |
| WAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·001 (−0·007 to 0·014) | 0·65 | −0·002 (−0·011 to 0·000) | 0·38 | 0·000 | 0·79 |
| Adjusted WAZ at 2 years§ (Z score) | −0·005(−0·010 to 0·006) | 0·05 | −0·005 (−0·019 to−0·002) | 0·05 | −0·005 | 0·005 |
| HAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·003 (−0·004 to 0·015) | 0·15 | −0·002 (−0·010 to 0·005) | 0·26 | 0·000 | 0·76 |
| Adjusted HAZ at 2 years§ (Z score) | −0·002 (−0·008 to 0·010) | 0·50 | −0·004 (−0·016 to −0·002) | 0·13 | −0·003 | 0·13 |
| BAZ at 2 years (Z score) | −0·001 (−0·003 to 0·005) | 0·69 | 0·000 (−0·013 to 0·003) | 0·92 | −0·001 | 0·72 |
| Adjusted BAZ at 2 years§ (Z score) | −0·003 (−0·006 to 0·005) | 0·16 | −0·004 (−0·018 to −0·001) | 0·09 | −0·004 | 0·03 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | ||||||
| Maternal height† (cm) | 0·10 (0·04 to 0·19) | 0·03 | 0·06 (0·02 to 0·24) | 0·10 | 0·08 | 0·07 |
| Adjusted maternal height§ (cm) | −0·01 (−0·10 to 0·04) | 0·85 | −0·04 (−0·09 to 0·10) | 0·38 | −0·02 | 0·45 |
| Birthweight (kg) | −0·54 (−0·86 to 1·24) | 0·18 | 0·11 (−0·51 to 3·16) | 0·79 | −0·22 | 0·43 |
| Adjusted birthweight§ (kg) | −2·04 (−3·81 to −0·28) | <0·0001 | −1·46 (−1·82 to 0·03) | <0·0001 | −1·76 | <0·0001 |
| IUGR (yes/no) | −0·26 (−1·76 to 3·28) | 0·58 | −0·03 (−1·40 to 1·17) | 0·95 | −0·16 | 0·65 |
| Adjusted IUGR§ (yes/no) | 0·68 (−0·57 to 6·77) | 0·13 | 0·93 (−0·87 to 1·78) | 0·05 | 0·79 | 0·02 |
| WAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·98 (0·55 to 1·86) | <0·0001 | 0·68 (−0·07 to 1·70) | <0·0001 | 0·83 | <0·0001 |
| Adjusted WAZ at 2 years§ (Z score) | −0·72 (−1·10 to −0·30) | 0·001 | −0·45 (−0·92 to 0·72) | 0·039 | −0·59 | <0·0001 |
| HAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·96 (0·62 to 2·93) | <0·0001 | 0·61 (−0·17 to 2·09) | 0·001 | 0·79 | <0·0001 |
| Adjusted HAZ at 2 years§ (Z score) | −0·08 (−0·96 to 0·53) | 0·68 | −0·02 (−1·67 to 2·67) | 0·92 | −0·05 | 0·71 |
| BAZ at 2 years (Z score) | 0·27 (−1·02 to 0·98) | 0·16 | 0·30 (−0·02 to 0·65) | 0·13 | 0·29 | 0·04 |
| Adjusted BAZ at 2 years§ (Z score) | −0·76 (−1·26 to −0·22) | <0·0001 | −0·48 (−1·19 to 0·11) | 0·01 | −0·63 | <0·0001 |
WAZ=weight-for-age Z score. HAZ=height-for-age Z score. BAZ=body-mass-index-for-age Z score. IUGR=intrauterine growth restriction.
*
Data are adjusted coefficients from linear regression analyses, using all exposures as continuous variables, except IUGR, which was included in the model as a dummy variable (0=no; 1=yes).
†
Information about maternal height not available for India.
‡
Glucose and offspring birthweight not available for South Africa.
§
Additional adjustment for adult BMI and height.
¶
Adjusted for individual's age when the outcome variables were measured, years of schooling completed by the mother (in India, by the father), and a measure of early childhood socioeconomic status.