Table 1.

Summary of the corrective effects of C-peptide on metabolic, molecular, functional, and structural parameters in DPN and primary diabetic encephalopathy. Arrows indicate a decrease (↓) or increase (↑) in the parameter in the non-C-peptide-treated situation. The original findings are referenced.

Diabetic Neuropathy
Abnormality	References
↓Na+/K+-ATPase	[29, 88]
↓eNOS, NO	[31, 95]
↓c-fos	[63]
↓NFκB	[84]
↓NGF, TrkA	[49, 50, 98]
↓IGF-1, IGF-1R	[49, 50, 98]
↓NT-3, TrkC	[49, 50]
↓Insulin Receptor	[49, 50]
↓Neurofilaments	[74, 98]
↓Tubulins	[74, 98]
↓Substance P	[49, 50]
↓CGRP	[49, 50]
↓Cell adhesive molecules	[82]
↑DRG neuronal atrophy	[49, 50]
and loss
↓NCV	[16, 29, 31, 49, 50, 74, 82, 88, 95]
↑Axonal atrophy and loss	[16, 49, 50, 74, 88, 98]
↓Nerve fiber regeneration	[98]
↑Axoglial dysjuction	[16, 82, 88]
Primary Diabetic Encephalopathy
↓Insulin Receptor	[96, 97, 104, 114, 115]
↓IGF-1, IGF-1R	[97, 104, 114, 115]
↑Caspase 3	[114, 115]
↑Caspase 12	[114, 115]
↑Tau	Unpublished data
↑Apoptosis	[113, 115]
Cognitive function	[114, 115]