Figure 9.

Meta-analysis for the association of maternal smoking during pregnancy with risk for subsequent breast cancer. The tests for homogeneity and for publication bias in the studies analyzed are as follows: Q = 16.90 (9 degrees of freedom), P = 0.06; Begg test, P = 0.59; Egger test, P = 0.31. ¹Titus-Ernstoff and coworkers [35] classified three categories: nonparental smoking, paternal or maternal smoking only or both parents smoking during pregnancy. The odds ratios (ORs) of father smoking on breast cancer risk was almost unity (OR 1.0, 95% confidence intrval [CI] 0.9 to 1.1). Thus, in this study, the mother smoking and both parents smoking versus nonparental smoking can be considered to the maternal smoking versus no maternal smoking. ²Women aged 21 to 45 years. ³Women aged 50 to 64 years.