Figure 3. Genetic distance tree of ace-1 alleles in the M and S forms of Anopheles gambiae s.s.

Samples were named as followed: S or M before the name of the locality and individual number. Where two distinct susceptible alleles were present in one mosquito, these are noted by “a” and “b” Blue characters are M form samples and black are S form. Variability of the single resistant allele M&S-R and all susceptible alleles of each form are presented and only supported bootstraps are shown. Two sequences of Anopheles arabiensis are included and highlighted in grey. For each allele, the sequence of ace-1 considered encompassed part of exon 2, intron 2, exon 3, intron 3, and part of exon 4. The G119S mutation, selected for resistance to carbamate and organophosphate, has been removed to take only neutral variation into account.