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. 2002 Oct 23;3(11):reviews0008.1–reviews0008.16. doi: 10.1186/gb-2002-3-11-reviews0008

Table 2.

Known auxiliary intronic elements that regulate alternative splicing

Exon or intron that is regulated Type of splice site choice Specificity of splicing* Type of element (name) Sequence Location of element (nucleotide number relative to alternative exon) Associated trans factor(s) Reference
4.1R exon 16 (human) Cassette Developmental stage-specific Enhancer AUUUAUUuuuAAAUAUuuuUUGGUUUGCCAAUUUUCAGUuuuUCCCG Upstream (-106 to -59) Unknown [53]
4.1R exon 16 (human) Cassette Developmental stage-specific Enhancer UGUAUgaAcUUGAagcUUAUUUCAgUuGgUUGCCUGgAacCUUCUGCAUUcuUugCUGAUCCCCUUUUCUUCAUUCUgUgcugCAUUUGGUUUugCaUGCAAUUgCauGAAGGGACUUuAGgUuUAAAAUGCuUuUGcAUGUU Downstream (+4 to 146) Unknown [53]
α-actinin NM/SM exons (rat) Mutually exclusive exons Smooth muscle-specific Silencer Not defined Upstream of SM exon PTB [54]
α-actinin NM/SM exons (rat) Mutually exclusive exons Smooth muscle-specific Enhancer (BP-URE) CCUUGUCUGUGUGUCUAACUGUGUGCAC Upstream of NM exon ETR-3, Brul [55]
Agrin Y exon (exon 28, mouse) Cassette Neuron-specific Enhancer uuaccCAACUcaacucaCC Downstream (+15 to 33) Unknown [56]
Agrin Y exon (exon 28, mouse) Cassette Neuron-specific Enhancer aucuuuuguAGCCAUUCCuagagAGCccuuuccc Downstream (+34 to 68) Unknown [56]
AMP deaminase 1 exon 2 (human) Cassette Developmental Stage-specific Enhancer (ExRE) GCCCAGGCUGGAGUGCAGUA Downstream (about +1.7 kb) Unknown [57]
AMP deaminase 1 exon 2 (human) Cassette Developmental stage-specific Enhancer (ExRE) CCAUCGAAUGCAUUUACUU Downstream (about +3 kb) Unknown [57]
Amyloid precursor protein exon 8 (human) Cassette Neuron-specific Enhancer AUGUUU Upstream (-47 to -42) Unknown [58]
Amyloid precursor protein exon 8 (human) Cassette Neuron-specific Silencer UUU Upstream (-38 to -36) Unknown [58]
Calcitonin/CGRP exon 4 (human) Cassette (contains alternative poly(A) site) Cell type-specific Enhancer (rep1) CCAAGGGAAAgcaugGGUUAACCUA Upstream (-254 to -230) Unknown [59]
Calcitonin/CGRP exon 4 (human) Cassette (contains alternative poly(A) site) Cell type-specific Enhancer (rep2) CAGCCCUGGugcaugGCACUGCCUC Upstream (-34 to -10) Unknown [59]
Calcitonin/ CGRP exon 4 (human) Cassette (contains alternative poly-A site) Cell type-specific Enhancer CUCCGCUCCUCUUCcagguaagac Downstream (+204 to 238) PTB, ASF/SF2 U1 snRNP, SRp20 , [60,61,62]
Cardiac troponin T exon 5 (chicken) Cassette Embryonic, muscle-specific Silencer (MSE1) CCUCUGCGCUUCUUCCCUUCCCUCCUCCCUGGCUCA Upstream (-36 to -1) PTB, U2AF65 [17,63]
Cardiac troponin T exon 5 (chicken) Cassette Embryonic, muscle-specific Enhancer, Silencer (MSE2) ACUGCACCUUUCUUUGUUCCAUCUCUCCACCUCUGCUGUG Downstream (+7 to +46) PTB, ETR-3 [17,64]
Cardiac troponin T exon 5 (chicken) Cassette Embryonic, muscle-specific Enhancer (MSE3) UCGCGGGUCGGUGUGUCCUGUGCCUUUCCCUGCUU Downstream (+53 to 87) ETR-3, PurH [17,64,65]
Cardiac troponin T exon 5 (chicken) Cassette Embryonic muscle-specific Silencer (MSE4) CGCUUUCCUUUCAU UCUUUCACUUCUCUGCUGCUUUU Downstream (+81 to 117) PTB [17,64]
Caspase-2 exon 9 (mouse) Cassette Brain and skeletal muscle-specific; associated with apoptosis Silencer (In50 up) GCUuauuaacUGCAAUGUAcuuuuuauuguuuuucauuccaGUUAAGG Downstream (+141 to 188) U2 snRNP [66,67]
Caspase-2 exon 9 (mouse) Cassette Brain and skeletal muscle-specific; associated with apoptosis Silencer (In50dn) AUUUCUGCUUGACUCUUCCAAAUCUUCCUUCUCUUACCCUUGCAUUUUCUCUCUGU Downstream (+189 to 244) PTB [66,67]
Chloride channel ClC-1 intron 2 (human) Intron retention Aberrant inclusion in myotonic dystrophy Enhancer UCUUGGGUAUAGCACCCAAAGUAAAGUAGUGACUCGUUAGCUGCUUUUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUCUGUCUCUACAUAUAUAUAUUUUUGUUUGUUUGUUUGUUUGUUGUUUGUUUGUUUGUUUUUUCCCUCAUCUC UUCCUAG Upstream of exon 3 (-156 to -1) CUG-BP [2]
Clathrin light chain B exon EN (rat) Cassette Neuron-specific Silencer CUCUUUCUCUUUAACCCUGUGCCUGCCUGUCUUGCUGUCUGUCUUCCCCCACCUAACUCCUUCUCCUAACGGUUUUCCUCAAG Upstream (-85 to -1) PTB, CUG-BP [68]
c-src N1 exon (mouse) Cassette Neuron-specific Silencer GGGCCCUGUCUUCGCACCUCAGCCUCUCCUUCUCUCUGCUUCUCUCUCGCUGGCCCUU Upstream (-60 to -3) PTB/nPTB [69]
c-src N1 exon (mouse) Cassette Neuron-specific Enhancer, silencer (DCS) UGAGGCUGGGGGCUGCUCUCUGCAUGUGCUUCCU Downstream (+37 to 70) PTB/nPTB, KSRP, FBP, hnRNP H, hnRNP F [69,70,71]
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator exon 9 (human) Cassette Aberrantly skipped in cystic fibrosis Silencer (ISS) Not published Downstream (+117 to 264) SR proteins [72]
Dopa decarboxylase exon B (Drosophila) Cassette Tissue-specific Silencer Not published Upstream (+84 to 528) Unknown [73]
DMPK exon 16 (human) Alternative terminal exon Developmental stage-specific; skipped in DM Enhancer (CUG)n Upstream (about 35 nucleotides) Unknown [74]
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 α exon (human) Cassette Skipped in glial cell tumors Silencer (ISS-1) AAugcugcUACAGCUGC UUCCUAACUUUGCCUCUUUCUUC Upstream (-242 to -281) PTB* [75,76]
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 α exon (human) Cassette Skipped in glial cell tumors Silencer (ISS-2) AUCUGCCCCCACUCUGCUUCAGAAACugcugcCCACUAACAUUGCUCCCugccugcCGCGUG Downstream (+98 to 159) Unknown [77]
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 BEK/K-SAM (IIIb/IIIc) exons (human) Mutually exclusive exons Cell-type specific Enhancer (IAS1) CUUUCAUUUUUGUCUUUUUUU Downstream of K-SAM (+10 to 29) TIA-1 [78,79]
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 BEK/K-SAM (IIIb/IIIc) exons (human) Mutually exclusive exons Cell-type specific Enhancer (IAS2) CCAUGGAAAAAUGCC CACAAC Downstream of K-SAM (+168 to 188) Unknown [80]
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 BEK/K-SAM (IIIb/IIIc) exons (human) Mutually exclusive exons Cell-type specific Enhancer (IAS3) UGUGGGUUGAUUUUUUCCAUGCGUUUGAUUGCGUGCAUGUGUAGGAGGUGAAGCCGGUGU Downstream of K-SAM (+963 to 1021) Unknown [80]
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 IIIb/IIIc exons (rat) Mutually exclusive exons Cell-type specific Enhancer (IIIb), silencer (IIIc) (ISAR) CAAACAAAUUCAAAGAGAACGGACUCUGUgggcugauuuuuccauguGUUCAAUCGC Downstream of IIIb (+915 to 978) Unknown [81]
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 IIIb/IIIc exons (rat) Mutually exclusive exons Cell-type specific Silencer (ISS1) CUCAUUGUGAUCUCCUCCCUCCCACAGCUCUUUAGGUGUA Upstream of IIIb (-143 to -112) PTB [82]
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 IIIb/IIIc exons (rat) Mutually exclusive exons Cell-type specific Silencer (ISS2) UGGUGGGACCAUAGGCAGCAC Upstream of IIIb Unknown [82]
Fibronectin exon EIIIB (rat) Cassette Cell-type specific Enhancer (ICR) UCUUAAAGGUUCUCUGCCCugcaugGGAAGAAACAUUGCUGAGAACCACUGugcaugAACCCCCUCACUUGUGAUACGAGUUCACUGAAUGACAUUACGGCAAUGCAGUAGUGUGUAGAUAC Downstream (+519 to 640) Unknown [83,84]
GABAA receptor subunit γ2 24 nucleotide exon (rat) Cassette Neuron-specific Silencer (rs1) UGUUUCUCUUUCUCUCCUUU Upstream (-89 to -70) PTB [85]
GABAA receptor subunit γ2 24 nucleotide exon (rat) Cassette Neuron-specific Silencer (rs2) CCUUUUCCUUCUUCUUAUU Upstream (-69 to -51) PTB [85]
GABAA receptor subunit γ2 24 nucleotide exon (rat) Cassette Neuron-specific Silencer (rs3) GCAAUUCUCUUUUCUGUCU Upstream (-31 to -13) PTB [85]
GABAA receptor subunit γ2 24 nucleotide exon (rat) Cassette Neuron-specific Enhancer ACAAAUCCA Upstream (-12 to -4) Unknown [85,86]
gag gene (Rous sarcoma virus) Spliced versus unspliced Infection stage-specific Silencer (NRS) CCGGAGUGCUCGAGAAACCAGCAACGGAGCGGCGAAUCGACAAAGGGGAGGAAGUGGGAGAAACAACUGUGCAGCGAGAUGCGAAGAUGGCGCCGGAGGAAACGGCCACACCUAAAACCGUUGGCACAUCCUGCUAUCAUUGCGGAACAGCUAUUGGCUGUAAUUGCGccacagccucggcucccuccuccuccuuauguggggagugguuuguauccuucccu Downstream of 5 splice site (about 300 nucleotides) hnRNP H, SF2/ASF [87,88,89]
Glycine receptor α2 exon 3A (human) Cassette Neuron-specific Enhancer UCAUCAUCAUUUCAU Upstream (about 80 nucleotides) Nova-1 [31,90]
hnRNP A1 exon 7B (mouse) Cassette Auto-regulated Enhancer (CE1) UAAGGAGUCUGUAAGUAAUGGUUUCUGGAAAACCUGUACCUUUAGAGUAGGCUAGUAGAAACUAAACUUAGUGCAUGACAAAGUUCGAUCAGUCCCAUAAAUGUGCAUG Upstream (-194 to -86) hnRNP A1 [21]
hnRNP A1 exon 7B (mouse) Cassette Auto-regulated Enhancer (CE4) AGCUAGAUUAGACUU CUAGAGUUU Downstream (+35 to 58) hnRNP A1 [21,91]
hnRNP A1 exon 7B (mouse) Cassette Auto-regulated Silencer (CE6IO) CCUGCUCUGCUGUGCUACCUCCUCCUGGCUUUAAGCUGGGGCCGCCUCCCCAAAAUAAGUAGGUGAAUGAGUGGUUA Downstream (+128 to 204) Unknown [11]
hnRNP A1 exon 7B (mouse) Cassette Auto-regulated Silencer (CE9) CUGGAUUAUUAACUGAAUGCCUCACUCAGAGAAUGAA Downstream (+372 to 418) Unknown [92]
Major late region 1 (L1) 52,55K/IIIa (adenovirus) Alternative 3' splice sites Infection stage-specific Silencer GCGUGGAGGAAUAUGACGAGGACGAUGAGUACGAGCCAGAGGACGGCGA Upstream of IIIa splice site (-76 to -28) SR proteins [93]
Major late region 1 (L1) 52,55K/IIIa (adenovirus) Alternative 3' splice sites Infection stage-specific Enhancer AGUACUAAGCggugauguuucugaucag Upstream of IIIa splice site (-28 to -1) Unknown [94]
MVM NS2-specific exon and small intron (parvovirus) Cassette, alternative 5' and 3' splice sites Infection stage-specific Enhancer (IES) GUUUAAGggAUgGUUgGUUgGUGgggU Downstream of NS2 exon, small intron D2 5 splice site Unknown [95]
Myosin heavy chain exon 11e (Drosophila) Mutually exclusive exons 11a-e Muscle type-specific Silencer (CIE1) AUGUACCAUGUACC Downstream of exon 11e Unknown [96]
Myosin heavy chain exon 11e (Drosophila) Mutually exclusive exons 11a-e Muscle type-specific Enhancer (CIE2) AGUGCUGUGU Downstream of exon 11e Unknown [96]
Myosin heavy chain exon 11e (Drosophila) Mutually exclusive exons 11a-e Muscle type-specific Enhancer (CIE3) AUCCAUCCCUCUAUCUAUCCCAGUUCAACCUGUCCAAAAGUGUUUUUGAAGAACCGCUUAAGCAUAAGCAAAAAAA Upstream of exon 12 (about -200 nucleotides) Unknown [96]
NCAM MSDb exon (mouse) Cassette Muscle-specific, developmental stage-specific Silencer (DSRE) GACCUCACUGACCCAGCUGGGCCUUUGUCACAUUGGGGGAGCCUGGUUCUUUUCCUCUCAUUCUCUUAACUGUCUAUACUUUAGUUCUUUGAAUCUGGAGGAGUGGAACAGGUCCACUCUUUGGAAACUUGAACCUGGCUUUCUAGU Downstream (+626 to 771) Unknown [97]
NMDA exon 5 (rat) Cassette Neuron-specific Silencer GCUUUAGCGCCGUCAUUUUCAACCGUUUAUAAUCUUCUUCUGUGUCUGCAUAUUUUCUCUGUGCACAUUAUUCAUCAG Upstream (-78 to -1) PTB, CUG-BP [68]
Non-muscle myosin II heavy chain B exon N30 (human) Cassette Neuron-specific Enhancer (IDDE) GAUUugcaugucguacugcauguGUCCACUGUGCACACAAUC Downstream (+1.5 kb) Unknown [98]
Nova-1 exon H (mouse) Cassette Neuron-specific Enhancer GCCAAUCAGGUACAGUAUCAUCCUCUCAUCCUACACCAUACUUUCACAGCGGUUG Downstream (+8 to 62) Nova-1 [31]
sex lethal exon 3 (Drosophila) Cassette Male-specific Silencer UUUUUUUU Upstream (-6 to -13) Sxl [99]
Slo K+ channel STREX exon (mouse) Cassette Ca2+-dependent in neurons Silencer (CaRRE) CCUUGCCAUUAACCGCGcUcUUCcUcUCCUCCCAUCCACCACAUGGUUAUAG Upstream (-53 to -1) Unknown [100]
tat intron 2 (HIV-1) Intron retention Variable Silencer (ISS) UAGUGAAUAGAGUUAGGCAGGGA Upstream of SA7 splice site (-44 to -22) hnRNP A1 [101]
tau exon 10 (human) Cassette Aberrantly spliced in disease Silencer (ISS) UCACACGU Downstream (+11 to 18) Unknown [102]
tau exon 10 (human) Cassette Aberrantly spliced in disease Enhancer (ISM) CCCAUGCG Downstream (+19 to 26) Unknown [103]
Thyroid hormone receptor exon 9 (rat) Alternative 5' splice site Tissue and developmental stage-specific Enhancer (SEα2) GGCGGCCAGAgggUGUGCggagcugguggggaggagCUUggagagaagggaCAAAGCUgggggCUgagggagaaCCCCCA Downstream (+130 to 210) SF2/ASF, hnRNP H [104,105]
transformer exon 2 (Drosophila) Alternative 3' splice site Sex-specific Enhancer Not published Downstream of non-sex-specific 3 splice site (about 40 nucleotides) Unknown [106]
transformer exon 2 (Drosophila) Alternative 3' splice site Sex-specific Silencer of non-sex-specific 3 splice site UUUUUUUU Upstream of non-sex-specific 3 splice site (-4 to -11) Sxl, U2 snRNP [107,108]
α-tropomyosin exons 2/3 (rat) Mutually exclusive exons Smooth muscle-specific Silencer (URE) aucacgcugccugcugcaCCCCACCCCCUUCCCCCUUCCUUCCCCCCACCCCCGUACUCCACUGCCAACUCCC Upstream of exon 3 (-75 to -1) Unknown [109,110,111]
α-tropomyosin exons 2/3 (rat) Mutually exclusive exons Smooth muscle-specific Silencer (DRE) CUGGAUGCCGCCUCUGCUGCUGCGCACAUUUCAUUUAUAUUCUGUCCUUUCCCCUUUUUCUCCUCUUCUUUACCUCCUCCCCUUUGGUUG Downstream of exon 3 (+142 to 231) PTB [109,110,111]
β-tropomyosin exons 6A/6B (chicken) Mutually exclusive exons Skeletal muscle-specific Enhancer (S4) CCCCUCUCUCUAUCGCUGUCUCUUGAGCCACGC Downstream of exon 6A (+37 to 69) ASF/SF2, SC35, PTB, hnRNP K [112,113,114,115]
β-tropomyosin exons 6A/6B (chicken) Mutually exclusive exons Skeletal muscle-specific Enhancer (IVS B7) GCUGGGGCUGGGCAGAGCGCGCAGGGUUGAGGGGAGCAGGGUCCUUCACUGGGGUGAA Downstream of exon 6B (+19 to 76) TLS [116,117]
β-tropomyosin exons 6/7 (rat) Mutually exclusive exons Striated muscle-specific Silencer (IRE) AACCCCACCCCCUCACCCCGUCGUCGCGCCACCCCACUGUCUCACCUCACUGUGCCCUCACGCUCCAUCCUGCCACACGCCCCUGCAG Upstream of exon 7 (-88 to -1) PTB, Sam68, FBP [118,119]

*Elements listed may not have been shown to regulate the specificity of alternative splicing. Sequences that have been shown to be important for element function but that have not yet been demonstrated to bind to specific trans-acting factors are shown in lower-case letters. Indicates that the factor has been shown to bind directly to the element (for example, by ultraviolet-induced crosslinking) and has had binding confirmed (for example, by mutational analysis). Specific binding sequences for trans-actingfactors are indicated in bold, italics or underlined when known.